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GOVERNKENT OF INDIA
ARCHEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA

CENTRAL

ARCHEOLOGICAL

LIBRARY

ACCESSION NO. I3T5I
CALL No. £72.' SSi/J

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THE BIRHORS: ^ ^

A Ume-KNOWN JUNGi-E TRIBE ,

OF CHOTA NAGPUR- y j

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THE BIRHORS:

d/k liffle-l^nowri

ofljh^a ila|f)tiif.

ISJySl -Dv

RftI BshAdur S<u%t Chmail^ Roy, M. A., M. 1~ &

Honowy Membw, Folk-Lwe Socie^f. LotHkip; €««••
pA«ili« y 3i«ttber ot tbo Boj*! AntteipolfliJo*! larti^
ol G«kt Britala Irettivds Edited, i*

iwOq**; AnibM wl “Xfc# Jfmii/M vtid JWr
Coimtrp", '‘371a OtvOMi^f Cioia tfagpur"

"3Ti* ®*d Jtofcodit tff P^jlli-

tal Aflfftrapaiow;" SffliiietiMRw'
d*r in Aulhropology *t tl»

Pitnt UuJiwrHtj'^iKfli'
perum AAM.Bc.

„ dP ^.« wiii - r --,-

niti«iuofth« ‘^■5‘^r

, 55 lflU ^

With numerous lUustroUons.
loas.

Prifl,; /intiM, T« SkilUfM.

. . ..

A«.. «»--l..

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The c- e, l. Mission Press, Ranchi.

Pmitttt) AT SLUfl Pdml

Pdbuibid Bf TB1 Adtsos, *‘Uar tv Imsu" OvncBi
CouBOB Boad. Rabcki, b. ir. iv.

f Ati^fSffhU J

ro be had of—

Til* MikAM^rt “Man in lodlB" Offle*, Rnnchl.

rRBFJLCJEl.

The present work is the third volume of
a series of monographs in which 1 have
been endeavouring to record, as faithfully
as possible, tlie 'primitive’ culture,—the
rapidly disappearing customs and institu¬
tions, ideas and beliefs,—of the different
‘aboriginal' tribes of ChSta-Nagpur. As for
the BirhGjs, it is not only their 'primitive'
customs and institutions, ideas and beliefs,
that arc fast decaying, but the people
themselves would appear to be gradually
dying out And no apology Is therefore
needed for the publication of tire present
account in spite of its many defects and
imperfections.

Although it is now over fifteen years that
1 have been engaff^d in studying the life
and culture of this interesting tribe, I cannot
say that I have seen or learnt all that has
to be seen and learnt about the BirhGrs.
They are scattered in very small migratory
bands over such an extensive area of hills
and jungles, not unoften didicult of access,
that 1 have not liad the opportunity of

V, Pnftici,

tracing out and visiting nil their different
encampments and studying the variations
in the customs and institutions among all
the different clans of the tribe. If a second
edition of the present work ever comes to
be published, 1 hope to be able in add
much further information,—for, tfie fascin¬
ation of the study of such an interesting
people will not permit my investigations
amongst them to cease mth the publication
of this w-ork.

My thanks are due mostly to the people
themselves, but more particularly to an
exceptionally mtelllgent BirhOr of the name
of Budhu of the Audi clan. As the Utlda
or migratory sections of the tribe are always
on the move, except during the rainy months
when they encamp generally in compa¬
ratively inaccessible )ungtes and hills away
from villages and settlements of other castes
and tribes, ills only during the rains that
one can have an opportunity of studying
them, if admitted into their encampments.
It was tliis man who during the rainy
months acted as my guide and chape-

PrtfoM,

VI,

roo to different Uthlu encampments wrtiictr
he fencted out for me and where 1 could,
not have expected a friepdly reception but
for his introduction aod , support In these
difficult journeya in some of vvluch we had
to walk several miles on foot over hills
and through jungles and sometimes had to
wade across swollen, and rushing hill-streams,
Budhu was my constant guide and compa'
nion ; and in some of these journeys my son
Dlnesh Chandra Roy accompanied me with
his camera and several of the illustrations in
this book are from photographs taken by
him, I am also indebted for a few of,the
photographs, to, my esteem^ friend .Revj
Father M, Stas, S. J, who accompanied me
to I two Jaghi BirhOr settlements in the
Ranchi District.

Finally, my thanks are due to my friends
Mr. Satis. CJiaodra Ray, B.. iwho kindly
helped me in seeing the book tJirough the
press, and Mr. Manindra Bhusan Bhaduri,
B, L., who kindly prepared the index.

Dated Ranchi, I S. C, R.

The 1st March^ I92S.I

ERRATA.

P. t It L 50, ffflf 'bridm>ocfl“ read iirldegroott^

Pi 50j i. iSi iftflT ^MeLiptii^eaii,', hjM *to PaljuAdaV
Pi TOi L I, fqr ^"wribfld* rwd HleacrlbedV
P. 04, L 4, Jor *mMgismeut^ risad
Pp L 16p for 'Kbpsar' rt»d ^hangai^.

Pp llT, L 51p for ^tnie^ road ^nattiro'H
P. l a^ ]p 5p for ■wotUd® toad *wQrM^

P. IDl, last lice, for V read *tq*-
PI 1 55, L 5p for road ^ Woi wiis.

P* 154, loBt llDD for ‘tha' read *tbe*.

P. 213, i 5j for *iLiid* usad Hicd^

Pi, ai4, I 9, for ^Ugo' read 'nU.U/

P, 247, L 15* for road ^im4tera'\

Pi 255p L for *af tern! ViP*

R 330, IL IT. 4 30, for road
P.^ 351, I 11^ for ^ogtk^ read "itrocgtii*.

Pi 564, L 0, for ^rmaoione' rtod 1u^noQiouE^

P, 599, Up 10 4 19» for ^ga* read *bDDga^

P» 400, L 20* for Siprui|f mad Sprang^^

P. 461 p i IS, for *liim* tBfid

Pi. 552. L I5p for read 'clan^

P, 561, L 10, for W read ‘thoy^,

P* 566, 1. 19| for ^probuJe’ raad 'pmbiiblo^

P. 5Se, Jut Itao, for *376-393^ read ‘376-333\

CONTESTS-
CHAPTER I.

IntiWluction;

Eiirlier AtscaiHii* of ilm Bkhor* _ -

CHAPTER n.

A C«aBra] View of Birhor LlTe ™ * "

CHAPTER HI. ^ ^

SociiU EyMtem i Taiiilu OrgaiaiM.tim Inter tiniSi

CHAPTER IV.

aoiiol Rwtew ; Totemlm ind KinJiip prgiim**tifld

CHAPTER V.

Ki^hipSi..™ CHAKTER VI.

CHAPTER VII.

Birth, Childhood jwd Tut^rty t "■

CHAPTER VIU.

Suiter IX. '

chafer X. "

*^'"“'’'‘’^"tHAPTER“5r ‘

FplkTni™ . CHAPTER .xn. *

ScieuM Md Xiitortil Hiprtory, Miw Art* »tid the.

Aria. GaniE* fttiA AxQiiiBiP*n[^ ,irT»i ^

CHAPTER Mil. _

C^udnBioa « — "

* ,rr k. 1 - 669^51?1

Atpezniii^ 1 :— Birlior Bir^hnf PrtfloUivtrti

ApfeS Dfi II Figurt* for

Anraswi ai ^

APPX™l^?v‘^^ai» *od 6*1 oi Familiw '

I?([IEX. _ — *

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JtS2lS

Hoi-’iSI

‘J14-363

3*4-3!l7

An Utililti BirbCf

THE BIRHORS

CHAPTER I.

IMTHODUCTION:

Earlier Account a Of The Btrhori.

Tlic people whose raanncis and customs,
ideas and beliefs arc described in this
book are one of the rudest and least known
of the jun^c tribes of Cliota-Kagpnr. Only
about fifty years ago when the altentton of
British administrators was first drawn to
tins people, Uiey used to t>e accused by their
neighbours of a revolting cannibalism—
of Jiastcning the end and devouring the
flesh of their dying parents and other
relations. At this day^ though no longer
accused of feasting on the flcsli of
living or dead human beings, they ore
credited even by their nearest neighbours
with wonderful magic powers: they are
believed to trap monkeys by simply be-

The Birhors.

witching them soUiat they may not leave
their trees when a party of Birhor monkey-
catchers approach them with their nets.

The earliest definite reference to this
people that we can find is in Colonel
Dalton's ]^otc$ of a Tour
S&ltoa'i Koto- iu the Tributary Mahah
published in the Jouruol
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal for the year
1864,’^ in which we have the following note
about this interesting tribe : '‘Whth mncli
trouble some Birhors were caught and
brought to me. They were wretclicd-looking
objects, but had more tlic appearance of
the most abject of one of those degraded
castes of the Hindus, the Domes or Pariahs,
to whom most flesh is food, than of hill
people. Assuring me tJiat they had them¬
selves given up the pmctice, they admitted
that their fathers were in the habit of
disposing of the dead in the manner
indicated, r/£-, by feasting on the bodies ;

* Vol. SXXITI (K), jx 1. retail, U nmy bt» mciitifwnt,

wi^ OLunmEiJiionfir of tho CJhoU Nagpur IHvtuion
fratii 1^1 to

Dalton's Nok.

but they declared they never shortened
life to provide such feasts, and shrank
wth horror at the idea of any l.iodii'a
but those of their own blood^rebtions
being served up to them ! The Raja of
Jashpur said he had heard that wJien a
Birhor thought his end was approaching,
he himself invited his kindred to come
and cat him. The Birliors brought to
me did not acknowledge this."

An earlier but doubtful reference to this
people is perhaps contained in the following
'Memorandum on an L’n-
Paddiagtoa’a knowm Forest Race (of

K fl tt cra adnm- Indian Veddas ?) inhabi¬

ting the jungles soutJi of
Palamow,' contributed to the same Joumal*
in the year 1855 by one Mr. Henry Pad¬
dington who, while extensively engaged
in coffee-planting about the year t82-l- or
1825, used to Iiave large gangs of *'Dltangar
( Onion ) or Cole ( Mim da-speaking ) coolies
coming direct from their country to work
on the planLitions," and came across two
* loi,

The Birhan,

persons whom the other people called the
''monkey people*' ( Bdt^Auf lok ) and who
by their uncouth appearance and wild
habits excited considerable curiosity in
the country side. “Shortly after the amval
of a large gang of Dhangar coolies , wrote
Mr. Paddington, **1 noticed on my rides
and walks that great numbers of the village
people were constantly coming and going
to and from the factory. They used always
to come and go freely on their little affairs
with the coolies or servants of the establish¬
ment, but the concourse now w-as almost
like that to a hat or iiiehi. Remarking
this, 1 at length enquired of my principal
assistant, a very respectable Portugese man,
what the reason of it was. He told me
in reply, that the people were flocking
from all quarters to see wliat they c^lcd
the 'monkey people'. Upon enquiring
who these people were, he informed me
that with the last gang of Dhangars there
arrived two persons a man and a woman,
‘who are exactly like great monkeys, Sir,
and the natives call them the monkey

Paddiuglon's Mcmormtdttm. 5

people (Bandar iok). Tiiey cannot even
talk tlic Dlmngar language properly. Sir,
but liave a language of their own/

“I desired these persons to be sent for
and certainly they in aH respects, and
especially the man, jusltfted tlic epitlict
which the villagers liad applied to them,
tie was short, flat-nosed, land pouch-like
wrinkles in semi-circles round the comers
oF the mouth and cheeks, his arms were
disproportionately long, and there a
portion of reddish hair to be seen on the
rusty black skin. Altogether if crouched
in a dark cover, or on a tree, he might
well Iiavc been mistaken for a large Orang¬
utang. The woman was equally ugly.
They were evidently so diHerent from the
Dliangars {and so considered by them
too) tlmt it uas impossible not to be, as
it w'crc, a different race.

"Of tltis the most unquestionable proof
was lltcir language. It was only witli
great difficulty and hy tlic aid of signs
llial one of the Dliangars, evidently a very
intelligent fellow, could make them under-

The liirhors.

stand the questions put to them; Ibn
result of which u'ls tliat they lived a
long uny off from the Dliangars in the
jungles and mountains, that there were
only a lew villages of them and that in
consequence of an accident or quarrel, llie
man bad killed a man of another ullage
for wbicli his own people were about to
deliver him up; in tlic fear of which he
fled with his wife, and after passing a long
lime wandering in the jungles Uioy l:ad
fallen in with my party of Dhangars who
had given them food and had brougiit
tJicni down in their company".

The reference to this pair as the "monkey
people" and the identiScation of their
home willi the jungles south of Palamow’
( Paiamau) might appear, tiiougli doubtfully,
to point to the Birhors whose descendants
are still met with in Uie jungles of the
southern thanas of Cljandu’a and Bcluimi
in tlic Palamau district, ajid further soiiUi
and south-west in the Haiaribagh and
Ifanclit districts and still furtJier scuth in
Singhbhum.

ReporL

In 1868, we find Capfiun Dcprec in his
Report on the Topo^phical Survey of
Chota Nagpur noticing the
Dflsna'a Top** migration to liie Assam
tea-gardens of some Bir-
hors, apparently more
advanced than the bulk of tlicir tribe-
fellows.

TIic first attempt at a clear account of
the people is* however, to be found in tlie
Report oit the KyoU'aree
P«bw’ Sopwt Sdlkmcnt of the Govern-
niait Fartsis iit Pnldinaw^,
by U R. Forbes, I. C.S., Extra .Vssistant
Commissioner and Settlement Officer,
I'alaniau Subdivision (of Chola Nagpur J
published in 1872. As it was pTuclically
tlic first account of tliis interesting tribe,
prepared by a Selllemcnl OlTiccr who had
first-luind knowledge of tlie people, I make
no ajMlogy for quoting it cxtciiso,
ft runs as follow's:—

Tlie Birhores arc an aboriginal Inbc
of a very low type, and arc doubUcss

* pp. 44-45^

The Birhors.

Moondahs, Their iangqage ts composed
of a rnixtttrc of Mooodan and Santalt
words, ivilf) a few ^vords which appear
to bdong to neither of those langoagcs-

‘Tfte Birhorcs arc probably one of the
earliest sctQcrs in the liiUs and forests
of tlie Chota Nagpore country; they arc not
confined to Palamow, but are found
scattered over the liills in Hazareebaugh
and Chota Nagpore*. Though wild, they
arc a very liarmless race. They arc to
be found living only on the tops and spure
of the Ititls, cultivating absolutely nothing
and living exclusively on monkeys, birds,
jungle roots, and herbs. They also lame
monkeys and leach them to dance, and
are somcliroes found in the villages making
a living in this way. They also make tlic
tflwl or drum used by the Kols at tlicir
festivals.

Tn appearance tliey have a wry
squalid look, and resemble more a low
type of Nutli or gipsy than any of the

*■ What k uow tfbG ILniHilii. District imi! La he (Huni-

(TtUiurlj caUci] *Chutfl Kiigpufu'.

Forbt^ Rei>orl> ^

Moottdah fribKS. They arc small made,
very black, and the geitcralily have rather
sharp features. Belli men and women
wear their hair long and Ismgiag, inatled
over their faces; and those whom 1 have
come across had an attanusAcd look, attri¬
butable doubtless to thdr mode of living.

'Being exceedingly timid, tlicy %
at the approach of man, like frightened
deer. They are not fond of moving about,
and never leave a range of hills until the
supply of their favorite roots is becoming
cxiiausted. When tihs takes place, scouts
are sent out to explore the country and
fmd another range where tlicrc is a sufii*
cieot supply of roots to last tire tribe for
some years. The range cliosen may be
forty or fifty miles distant, yet as soon as
tlie scouts return tJie whole tribe migrates
in a body, keeping to the forest paths, and
only crossing tlie open when Uicy cannot
otJicrwisc avoid it.

‘Tlrcy do not appear to live m
large companies, but spread Uicmselves
in a range of iiUJs,—two or three families

to • The Birkors.

only living together. Tlielr dwellings arc
composed of little rude hovels of bamboos
and leaves, such as are sometimes seen
erected on the fields in Bengal for the
culhvator to sit in while watching his
crops at night. Not more than one couple
live in tlicsc hovels ; but the very young
children live with their parents, the olliers
apart. The boys and girls live together,
and arc allowed all freedom before mar-
riage but in their wedded life they are
exceedingly chaste.

‘Tlicir marriage ceremony is inte¬
resting and peculiar: I ivill llicreforc
describe it. As soon as a young couple
have determined to marry, the elders of
both families join in collecting all their
a\'allablc resources for a least. Roast pig,
stewed monkey, herbs cooked in fat, roots
of all sorts, make up the bill of fare,
Plenty of hmtdi or rice beer, or, if this
is not obtainable, then the intoxicating
liciuors made from tlie two plants khuolao
.ind ikhoossootia as a sufasUlute wherewith
to drink the health of the young couple.

Forbes' Report,

'As soon as all is prepared the
guests assetnblc, and tlic nicmbers of the
two faniilies sit down in a line opposite
one another. After certain inquiries as to
whether the feast is prepared, and recei¬
ving satisfactory replies, tlie father of the
boy thus addresses the father of the bride :
"My son calls his bride ] his looks arc
eager; his feet arc swift”, or some such
words as these. The girl's father then
turning to the maiden says'Fly my
daughter, and show him who would be
tliy husband how nimble is tliy foot .
I’pon this liie girl gets up and suddenly
darts at full speed into the forest; a minute
later and off starts the boy to catch Iris
bride. When the chase Is going on a kind
of chant is sung, one side replying to the
oilier, and singing the praises of the bride
and bridcrooni in *sonrie such urards as
these"Joomec (the g^rl ) is like the
deer, her foot is swift, she tlies like the
west wind", to wliich the boy's family
will reply "Mahno is like Ujc arrow lliat

The Birhors.

slriketii the deer; he is swift and sure,
Joomce iuis fear, Mahno Jaas love -

‘This song goes on till the shout
of Ihc boy, as he succeeds in catching the
girl, is heard, when silence foUowTS, The
chase seldom lasts longer than a few
minutes ; and if they are not already out
of sight of the spectators, tlic youUiful couple
at once retire into the forest, and the
marriage is there consummated Tliey
return presently to tlucir friends, when tlie
girl is taken clrargc of by the women, wlio
proceed to adorn her in her bridal dress,
generaUy a new ‘'sari’* of coarse country
clothj—n present from Uie bridegroom.
Flowers are placed in her liair, and
blusliing she is led fortli and presented
lo llic company, after which the feast
commences in earnest; all get uproari¬
ously drunk, and high jinks arc carried on
till morning; sometimes the feasting and
drinking continue for two or tlirce days,
but not alwaj’s,

‘These people are very dever at
monkey-cateliing. I have never seen it

Forbes' Report.

done, but they explained to me tliat they
used nets made of some very strong 6bre.
spraadiBg them from tree to tree fw
some distmees, odd thot they then mode
a long detour, so as to bring the animus
bebveen the nets and themselves, and that
as soon as they succeeded in doing this,
which requires all their caution as the
animals bv instinct seem to know a Birhore

a long way ofi, they begin to drive them
by beating the trees with tliejr sticks,
keeping up at tlie same time a song of
a.om/id pmire ot the monke). One
little girl is stationed at the Foot of one
of the trees near the nets, why 1 could
not understand, but 1 imagine it u^that
not being unlike a monkey hcT^U, the
animals might gain

her to be one of themselves. She keeps
up a song the whole time.
as far as I conld understand, the olt
nursery rhyme, _^DiUy dilly ducklings

come and be killed *

‘The beaters ad^-ance very gradu^y
taking care tn keep all the aniinals wHa"

The Birhors.

a certiln space, so as to force them into
the nets, and as soon as a suiBdent rrumber
liavo become entangled, they rush forag'd
and despatch tliem with their laities,

‘The forms of worship of the
Dirhorcs differ in no way from those of
the Moondah tribes. They call god
“Bhongah Kancy”, and the devil “Ago^
Bhoogeah Bhoo” and liave the usual long
list of evil spirits, 1 Imvc not been able
to ascertain whether they have any priests
or fetish men among them f I rather thinli
tlmt they are subordinate to the village
bygas,

'As they cultivate absolutely nothings
at least tlie Palamow portion of the tribe
do not—there is very little hope of their
ever taking to an agricultural life. Strange
to say, 1 sec tliem mentioned in Captain
DepreeV report on tlic operations of the
topographical survey of Chota-Nagpiu:, 1868,
as emigrants to the Cachar and Assam lea
gardens; these must have been civilized
indeed'.

Dalton's Etbnoiagy*

The meagre description of the tribe
contained So Dalton’s X>£Scri/»/ji'c Ethno'
hnv of BetsgaE published
Dalton’s in the same year as Forbe’s
Ethnolcey- adds little of any

value to the Infomiation contained in tiie
latter account, and indeed appears to be
less accurate. Dalton's own account is
contained in the iollowing few lines : 'The
Dirhors call themselves Hindus, live irr the
jungles, and subsist on \rild animals,
honey, and w'hat they can obtain by the
exchange of jungle produce with iwoplc of
the plains. They arc great atlepta at
ensnaring monkeys and other small animals,
;md sell them alive or eat them, they have
no cnltiialion whatever, but they arc appa¬
rently Kotarku, as among themselves they
converse in Kol. They sell chob, a strong
fibre of which ropes and strings for various
purposes are made, honey, u'ax, and sikas,
the sticks like bows for carrying loods
banghy fashion and Ixuighy ropes j and with
the proceeds and the spontaneous etliblc
productions of tJie forest I hey matiiagc to

The

exist and clothe themselves. There arc
people called Birhots in Chutia Nagpi^
proper and Jashpur, who live m
wild state, but commumcatc with each
other in a dialect of Hindi. They are a
small, dirty, miserable-looking race, w o
have the credit of devouring Uieir parents
and when I taxed them with d they did
not deny that such a custom Siad once

obtained among them'.®

To this he adds a short account supplied
to ton by one of his Indion subordinate
who is said lo have %-isltcd some Dirhor
MlUcmcnts. That aooount runs as

follows:— ,

"The Birhors were found living m me

jungles on Ure sides of hills in huts cons-
^ tmeted only of branches

HouMa. of trees and leaves, but so
made as to be quite water¬
tight; their huts are as small as those of
the Juangs, previously described. The
entrance door faces tlio east, and is about
two feet from Uie ground, A man and
• p. Ifis.

Plate* 1 .—A JSghj BirItjJr Triqdfi (distant view).

Houses,

his wUfi and young children sleep together
in tills small hut sis feet square, but grown¬
up cliildrcn are provided witli separate
huts; they lie on date-tree kal-mats spread
on the ground. They have Iiardly any
cultivation, and never touch a plough. ^
man and his family who not long ago left their
community and took to cultivating in the
plains are now considered outcasts. The

men spend their time in snaring hares arid

monkeys, collecting edible roots and jungk

fruits and the chob (Bauhinia scand^s}
bark, of which they make strings for various
purposes. Tliey are seldom seen m the
villages, but the women frequent the markets
to sell their ropes and jungle produce,

“The Birhorsafiinn that they and the
Kliarwarsareof the same race descended
from the Sun. They came,
Legands- seven brothers, to tliis
country from Khairagarh

{in the Kaimur InUs );

cast, and three brothers remained m tiic
Ramgarh district. One day when the three

The Birhors.

brothers were goinS fight agaiTist the

cliicfs of the country, the Iicad-dress of one
of them got entimgled in a tree. He
deemed it a bad omen, and remained behind
in the jungle. His two brothers went
vdthoul him and gained a victory over Uic
ciiiefs, and returning found their brother
employed in cutting the bark of the cliob.
They derided him, calling lihn lire Birhor,
(‘Birlior' is Mundu for a woodman or
foreskr) or chob cutter ; he replied that
he would rather remain a Birhor and reign
in the jungles tlian associate with such
haughty brotiiers. Tims originated the
Birhors, lords of the jungles. The other
two brothers became Rajahs of the country
called Ramgarh.

"The number of the Birhors is limited,
estimated at not more than 700 for the
w'hole Hazaribagli district
NumoricaJ They are quite a nomadic

Strongth race, wandering about from

jungle to jungle, as tlic
sources of their subsistence become exhaus¬
ted, There are about ten families in the

Pbtf Tl. — A JSjflii IJii'liGt' Tfigcjii (mtuixM* vitfw)*

Womot,

jungles near the village ol Raiagiirh, forty
in the vicinity of Gola, ten in the jungles
of jagesar, and forty families about Chatra
and Datar. Major Thompson, in his report
on PaLimau, speaks of them as the abori¬
gines of that district. TJiey are found m
Chutia Nagpur proper, in Jashpur, and in
Manbhum.

"The women dress decently ; they have
marks of tattooing on their
Wcrtn«Q. chest, arms, and ankles;

they have no such marks

on the face.

After childbirth a woman remains in her
hut for six days and has no food, except
medicinal herbs. Then the infant is taken
out, not by the ordinary door, but by an
opening made in tlie opposite wall; this, Jt
is believed, protects it from being devoured
by a tiger or bitten by a snake. f n •

"Parents arrange the marriage of their
cluldrcn. The father of the bridegroom
pays three nipocs to Uic
fattier of tlio bride. They
liave no priests, and the

Murriago-

The Birhors,

only cenetnoiiy is drawing blood Irora the
little fingers of the bridegroom and bride,
and with this the tilak is given to each by
marks made above the clavicle. This, as
I have elsewhere noted, I believe to be the
origin of Uic pmctice now’ so universal of
marking with red-Icad. The convivialities
of feasting and dancing conclude llic day,
“The ceremony takes place in the bride's
house, and next morning she is taken to
her husband's; but after remaining there
two days she returns to her father's to
complete her education and growth at liome.

“Their ceremonial in regard to the dead
j 5 quite Hindu. They bum the body and
convey the remainder of
oiuposfti of tho the bones afterwards to thv
Ganges, they say; but
probably any stream an¬
swers. They do not sliavc for ten days as
sign of mourning at tlic end of that time
all sluive and they have a feast-
“The Birhors worship female deities and
devils, They have assigned to Devi the

Dciiks.

chief place among the former andtho
others are supposed to
Deitjea, daughters and

grand-daiigliters; she is worshipped
as the creator and destroyer. The devils
are Biru Bhut, who is worsliipped in the
form of a raised semi-globc of earth—Bim
is also the Kharria god—-and Darha, repre¬
sented by a piece of split bamboo tlircc
feet high, placed in the ground in an incli¬
ned position, called also the ’Sipahi',
sentinel. This is the imiticdiate guardian
of the site, as a god or devil of a similar
name is witli the Mundas and Oraons. A
siTtall round piece of wood, nearly a foot
in length, the top painted red, is called
'Banhi', goddess of the jungles, Another
similar is Lttgu, the protectress frf tire earth,
Lugo is the largest liill in liamgarh, so

this Is their Manmg Bum.

"An oblong piece of wood, painted'red,
stands for ‘Maha Maya', Devi's daughtan
A small piece of white stone daubed with
red for her grand-daughter, BuriaMai; aB
arrow-head stands for Dudba Mai. Buna's

The Birhars.

daughter. They have also a trident painted
red for Hanuman, who executes all Devi's
orders.

"Sets of these symbols arc placed one on
the east and one on the west of their huts,
to protect them from evil spirits, snakes,
tigers, and all kinds of misfortune.

"It is not easy to place the Birhors from
what is above disclosed, but the fact that,
though a wandering and exclusive people,
tJiey commune in the Munda language,
is, 1 tliink, sufficient to establish that they
belong to the ICol race ; and then they have
the Mimdari-Oraon deity Darha and adore
the Biru of the Kharrias.

"The people with whom they exchange
commodities are all Hindus or Hinduised,
so it is not surprising that they should
take up Hindu notions”. ^

In Ids Stalisticat Account of the Htisari-
ba^h District published in 1877, Hunter

• pp. 31S-320.

HiinUr's Account.

tnercly quotes tkc above account from

- . T Dalton; and in Ins Statis-

Hunters * r ij

statistical Heal Acmini of tlii

Aooouat- lohardaga ( Ranchi )

District,^ ( 1877 ), Hunter does nothing

more than give a summary of the account

quoted above from Forbe's Settlement

Report of the Paldmau Sub-division.

A comparatively fuUer* though all too
brief, account of the Birhors, covering not
more tlian four pages, was

^ , contributed in 1888 in the

Account- Jourfttti of the Asiatic

Society of ** by Nfr.
W, H. P, Driver, an Emigration Agent then
working at Ranchi.

As this, like Mr. Forbea* Report, \vas
coUcctcd first hand, and, together with
Forbes' account, constituted the only rc c
infonnation available about the tri^ when
I began my investigations, Mr, Dnver s
account is reproduced below

" pp. 25B-9.

■ Yd. LVii. rt. I., pp.

The Bir/fon,

‘'Habitat —The Birhors, a small tribe
speaking a dialed of the Kolanan langU'
age, chiefly lead a wld nomadic Ufc among
the hills and jungles of ChutL^ Nagpur.
They travel about in small communities,
earning a precarious living by making string
from the ch6p (Bankhm scmtdcfts) barb.
A few of their number have, however,
settled down in different parts of the district
amongst their more rivilised neighbours and
taken to cultivation- Those liwng in the
jungles are usually very poor, their huts
being m^^de of leaves and branches, and
measuring 8 or 10 feet in length by 6 feet
in breadth by 6 feet in height, Ibe doors
being oidy 2 feet in height by H feet in
breadth. These huts arc placed in circular
form, with the doors facing tow^irds the
inside of the circle, of which the open
space in the centre is kept clean and used
for dan^'ing. In appearance the Birhors
are amongst the most degraded looking of
Kolarian tribes. They are usually very
short, bliick, and dirty-looking, some of the
men wearing the hair matted- They dg

Platt? III.—An UtUlu BirliOf's leaf-but.

Dm'er's Accoanf.

not use bows and arrows, and their only
weapons are small axes.

*'Fa0d.— The jungle BIrhors keep
neither cattle, goats, nor pigs, but buy them
when required tor a feast or sacrifice.
They eat cows, buffaloes, goats, pigs, fowls,
rats, and monkeys, but not bears, tigers,
jackals, dogs, snakes, liaards, Ac. For
vegetables they are dependent mostly on
the jungles, and the following is a list of
the commonest kinds, viz.“*

'*Lcav(S .— Kofnar, KAnd, Matha, Kalai,
Sari, SdniberA, Sirwer, Fich’ki, Chatom,
Muchuri, Haia, Singh, Rong. Roots.
Hdscr, DutA, Lariya, Kudil, Podho, Kadnwer,
Bel, Dumar, Bar, Pipar, Sami, Pithor, Dau,

Tiril, Katkariji, Sir'ka.

‘‘Their women help them to make tlie
chop string, and also carry this and the
TnonUcy skins to tlie small village markets
situated nearest the jungles, and there
cither sell or barter their articles for rice,
salt, and oH. The skins of monkeys are
used for making Kol droms.

a unting.—The following is the system

The Birhars,

in which they hunt. Strong nets about
4 ft. wide, which they miike of chop, are
stretched up at upright p(^3 or trees in
a line along the ground, for a distance of
several hundred yards. They then beat
up towards their nets, and die forests being
almost denuded of targe trees, the monkeys
( small, brown and long^iailed ) lake to the
ground, and so get snared along with oilier
game.

"Tribes and Stib^iribes^—ThQ Birhors can
tell you nothing of their origin or history
beyond the fact that they have been
‘Birhors,' or jungle men, from prehistoric
times. They are commonly known
amongst the people of these parts as
c/jopddra ( chop string makers). They
are divided into two sub-tribes, namely
Bhuliya or u'anderera, and Joglu or settlers.

luni Superstitions ,—Their religion
is a peculiar mixture of Hindu and Kolarian
ideas. They worship Dcbi-Mdy^ a Hindu
goddess; Mahd-Mtiy (represented by a
piece of wood painted red ), Darhd
Bougii, river bank god (reprenseted by a

Plate IV—An UtliTn HirliGr jmitli
siTit»king Ilia leaf-cigrttetto in ffont of
Ilia loaf-lmt.

Driver's Acccfunt,

piece of bamboo stuck in the ground );
Kudri-Bongd, river god ; Bmhi-Mdy, jungle
goddess ( represented by a small piece ef
wood witli some simiitr on ii, stuck in the
ground); Lugu^iiitiyj earth goddess ; Dhukd-
Bottgd, air god ; Bir'ku or Biru-Bongd hill-
god. BnrMUtiy {represented by a white
stone painted red on the top); Dadha-may
( represented by an airowdicad)} Haitn^
man (reprcsnted by a trident painted red )
l^ap'si and Jilenga are not represented by
any image. They see no anomaly in wor¬
shipping ‘Hannuman’ and eating monkeys.
The various representations of their gods
and goddesses are placed in a small
cleared spot fenced in witli thorns. The
Sun is sacrificed to once in four or five
years. The larger communities liavc their
Pohan or priest, who attends to all the above-
mentioned worthies, but the smaller camps
have to content themselves uith the services
of the MtiJtdtl Pahdn of some neighbouring
village. The fiirhors offer sacrifices to their
parents every 3 years, taking care to avoid
the month or montlis in which they died

28 The Birliors.

and offering separate fowls to the father
and mother.

*'WUch-cfaft. —They also have OJhdlis or
diviners, besides ollicis who practise the
“black art". Such persons are feared and
disUkedf and yet often croployetl by these
superstitious people, if an aggrieved person
wishes to have revenge, he or she ( prachsitig
under the instructions of tlie lyhct) puts a cl evil
on the enemy or on his or her household, and
very soon some one falls ill. The head of
the afflicted house refers to the oj/id, who
lights a Chirdg, goes though some mummery,
and discovers the instigators of the obses¬
sion. Amongst the Mundas tlie result is
usually a free fight, hut the Birhors iakc
things more calmly, and tlie matter is
amicably arranged by the part}*^ causing
the devilment giving the ojhd a fowl to
sacrifice, with a request to withdraw the
devil.

“Tftc fuaiittg orA" The ojlid is referred
to on alt occasions of sickness, when he
goes through the performance of feeling the
wrist and tooUng wise, fiist like our own

Driver's Accctnit,

quacks. His prescription is nothing so
nasty as physic* but simply the sacrifice
of a fowl, white, red ot thick, according
to the occasion, and large or small according
to the means of tlic patient Light sicknesses,
such as headache or stomach-ache, arc
cured by the Ojhd putting some *om'tf
fftaifi’ into Uie right liand of the patient,
and turning it five times round his (the
paUenl’s) head.

**Fes//rflis.-Birhors keep the following Ivola-
rian festivals, viz,, Migh-Parab in January ^
Phagun, the hunting festival, in February r
Sarhul in March ; Kaiani and Jittia in
September; Dasal and Sohrili in October.

"Dances. —They dance the Lujb’n^i the
Karam and the Jittiya, Uic Jarg;V at the
Phagud and Sarhul, and the Sauntari at

other times, ^

"Fricijdships.-^ThQ men make i&irain dal
friendships by putting a Karam leaf in
each other's hair, and giving each other
a new piece of cloth ; the women give pieces
of cloth, but do not exctiangc Karant leaves.
The women also form other friendships

The Birhors,

among themselves by going to a river and
plashing each other with water. TJiey then
call each other Gang^jal.

"Marriage Cttsiofiis,‘^The Birhors do not
marry until full grown. They have only
one wife, and widows are allowed to remarry.
They are not allowed to marry out of
their tribe, but they cannot marry into
the same gotra, i. e. people of tlic same
family name. They have such surnames as
. Sing'puria, Nag'puriya, Jag’sariya, Liluar,
Bcharwar, Siruwar, Hem’rom, Matiali, &c.

Parents anrange matrimonial matters the
price of a wife being from Hfr 3 to Itct 5, and
the bride-groom goes to the house of Ms
future father-in-law to get married. After
eating and drinking, the PaJmn or priest
( one of their own tribe ) cuts the right hand
little fingers of both bride and bridcroom.
Tlicy then mark each other on the breast¬
bone with their blood, or put llicir blood
on small pieces of cloth which they
exchange and for 3 days wear round their
necks. After this ceremony they anoint
each other’s head with oil. Then the man

Driver's Account.

takes some Siudnr In his right hand which,
with an upward motion, he rubs on the
centre of her forehead. She then returns
the compliment by putting five spots of
Sind nr in a perpendicular line on the centre
of Ms forelicad. The tokundi or brides¬
maid (generally a young relative of tlic bride)
then comes forward and ties the end of the
bride’s sciri to the bridegroom's gantcltlm*
The ceremony is concluded with drinking
and dancing which is kept up all night, and
next morning the whole parly adjourn to a
rK'cr or tank and batlic. After allowing the
newly married wife to remain writli her hus¬
band for a few days, the parents or guardians
take her away and keep her a week or so,
during which lime she is feasted and well-
treated and she is then made over to lier
husband. They usually nmiry in February,
and at the following Karma pay a visit to
the wife's parents. Birhors do not appear
to iiavc any definite customs as to divorce,
such occurences arc very uncommon
amongst them, but they say if married

r/t4 Mirkcn.

people wislied to separate, there was
oothiag to lunder tlidr doing so.

"Custoi/is r£j^at‘ditig C/u7dmi.—-After the
birth of a clrild, a door is cut at tlie back
of the house for tlie use of the motlier.
When the child is six days’ old, its head
is shaved, its whole body is rubbed with oil
and turmeric, and it is tlien named cither
after one of its j^:and*parcnts or after the day
on wliicli it unis bom. The parents tiien
offer a saoihce after consulting the O/kd.
The liair is shaved by one of Ibeir own
people who acts as a barber for tlie whole
community, and who is paid a paita ( about
2 pounds) of rice for his services- All
males, both young and old, have dicir heads
sliavcd ( with the exception of a top knot)
at regular intervals. The boys, at the
age of 10 or 12, have tlic backs of both
forearms burnt, die operation being per*
formed with liglited wicks made from oiled
rags. The ^Is, id about the same age,
are tattooed on tlic wrists, biceps and
ankles. Tliis operation is performed by
Ghasi women who make a profession of it.

Driver's Account.

Tlie monUi of November is always chosen
as the most fitting time for the operations
of tattooing and bumingt CJiildren of
both sexes remain with their parents until
tlicy marry.

**Dt:alh Custojns.-^The Birhore first bum
and then bury their dead near a stream,
placing a stone of any sort over the spot.
At a parent's death, the youngest son has Iiis
head sliaved clean. At tiie deatli of a child
all male relations shave the fore part of
tlie head and dine with tlie bereaved
parents, and the parents offer a sacrifice
of -a goat to Debi or Maha-miiy".

The meagre account of the Birhors
given in Risley s Tribes

Bial^'a Trihce Custes of Buiani

aadCastSB. ^dds little to our know*
ledge of the tribe except
that it gives the names of eight of the Eirhor
clans or septa. In other respects it is Itss

>“ VtJ t, pp. nr 9 bihI \ fA. TI. Olauarf

Ik 13.

The Birhors.

■atisfacton- than Driver’s account which was
published ttirce i’cars earlier than Risley's.

The Census Reports ^ve us practically no
information about this interesting tribe
except with regard to their
CeftsuB numerical strength and the

lUporta- proportion of the Birhor

population who speak their
own dialed. This proportion, we are told,
was one-lialf in 1911 ; and the Report of
the Bihar amt Orissa Cetisns of 1921 in¬
forms us that the number of Birhors
speaking tJieir own ‘Birhar’ dialect tias
decreased from 1,013 in 1911 to only
25S in 1921, and further goes on to
obsen-c; “It is clear they hold their
lease of life on slender terms; even
when he produced volume IV of the Lia-
^ttisiic Surt'cy nearly twenty years ago Sir
George Grierson considered that tfie daj's
ofBirharwere numbered"'^. The Census
figures for Birhors speaking their own dla-

itiiar ntid On*vi Ceittm Rfj>ort for 19’21, Pari J

( 1923. >p.2lB,

Cctjsui Ht^ports. SS

lect would, however, appear to be inaccurate,
for although f.nioat Birhors can talk the
Gnwari Hindi of their Hindu neighbours
and roijst have talked to tlic Census cnumc’
raiors in that dialect, closer enquiry shown
that the majority of Birhors still use Ihcir
own dialect in talking amongst themselves.
Nor does there appear to be any justi¬
fication for calling their dialect ‘Birhar'
and thus distinguislung it from the tribal
name.

It may be noted, that a short explanatory
note in the abstract Caste Tabic appended to
the BtiiHal Census Report for 1901, reads
as follows : “Birhor ( nurocrical strength :
943 nialca, 890 females chiefly found in
Chota Nagpur—live by snaring liares and
monke>'S and collecting jungle products ^d
speak their own language { Birhor),
Subsequent Census Reports do not even
contain a similar note.

ThcCJiota Nagpur District Ciucltecrsof
Palamau ( 1907 j, Singhbhum ( 1910 ), and

K p.XXXin,

The Birhors.

Manbbum ( 1911 ) make no reference
wliatsoever to this people.

SiatriQt A. short paragraph in the

Gudtteexs Gazeiher 0 / the Ranchi

District (1917) only tells us :
"The Birhors are a jungly tribe with no H\etl
habitation, who roam from forest to forest,
living on game and monkeys and by the
manufacture of drums and the sale of jungle
products. They apeak almost pure MundUri,
and the fact that their name Birhor (= junglO’
men in ^lund^ri ) includes tlie word horo^
which the Muiidas apply exclusively to
themselves, points to their being an offshoot
of that tribe that has preferred a wandering
life in the jungles to the settled life of a
cultivator. At the Ccj;sus of 1911, 927
members of the tribe were found in the
district, of whom 500 were classified as
Animisbi and the rest as Hindus. In
Risley’s Tribes ntitl Citstrs of Bengal, tlicir
religion is said to be a mixture of Animism
and Hinduism, and they arc said to seek
to liannoni^e the two systems by assigning
to Deri the chief place in tlieir Pantheon,

P]aty V .—A Jilglii Bii'liQ;' Tijt? girl

standing in frunt of Lint Lt twisting rnpe,
and tbe old woman in tliu middle is weaving a
ciiiTying*net.

District Casetkm.

and making out the animistic godlings to
be her daughters and grand-daughters",^*

Finally, the Gaz€tk£f‘ of Hazaribagb
District, published in the same year as the
Katidii Ga^ftt^cr, cotitains a sympathet c
onc-pamgraph notice of this tribe. It runs
as follo\ra : "In the Census of 1911 there
were 1,024 Birhers in Hazaribagh, 927 m
Ranchi, and a total for the province of 2,340
souls. The word means ‘jungle man ; me
language is ve^r do^ly akin to Mundir,.
and the race is Dravidbn, Formerly with¬
out setUed immes and winning a scanty
subsistence from the products of the jung e,
they have now fallen on <^il times wiU, he
gradual extension of culUvahon and ho
greater drain on the forests from the
presence of a thicker population j and they
'ire taking up settled work landless
labourers, living in permanent dwellings on

the outskirts of villages, but ‘

discovering wild honey and mataag jo^.
of chop. The latest account of this untor

pp.

The Birhon.

tunatc race is contained in an article by
Baba S. C. Koy in the number for Septeni-
ber 1916 of the Jourual of ihe Bihaf <it*d
Orissa Researdi Society
The article on the Birhors in tlie Journal
of the Bf’ftrtr Orissa Research Society
referred to in Uic Hasiiri-
joojiial df tlio bag,h Gnsrffecr, was follow^

" 7 '

in the pages of the same
Journalp and the enquiries of w’hich tliosc
articles were the outcome have since been
continued and the rcsulls are now embO'
died in the present tnonograpb.

>< pp;

CHAPTER IL

—:o;—

A General View of Birhor Life,
r. Habitat,

The hills and jungles dial fringe llie
Chota Nagpur plateau on its east and norlli*
east, form the principal home of the
Birliors. This Une of hills runs from
the Ramgarli thana ( Police circle ) in tlic
Haxaribagh district on the norlli along tlie
Ormanj hi, Angara, Ranclri, and Bundu
Dianas on the cast of the I{anchi plateau
up to and beyond the Tamar tliana which
marks tlie south-eastern limit of the Ranchi
district. Mere and there in these hills and
jungles extending roughly over an area t>l
over seventy miles in length and twenty
miles in breadth, the Birhors move about
eillier in small scattered communities sparing
monkeys, tiacldnfi liarc, deer or oilier game
and collecting rope-fibres, honey and bees
wax, or camp in liny leal-huts making

The Birhots,

nidc wooden vessels and pkttuig ropes and
weaving them into liunting-ncls and car¬
ry ing-ncts. Several groups of Birliors are
also met with beyond tlic north-eastern
margin of the plateau into the jungles and
hills further north in ilie Haaaribagh district
nortir of the Danrodar, where tlicy muster
strong, and a few scattered groups have
strayed into the Manbhum district on the
east and into the Singhbhum district on
the south, A few scattered groups of Bir-
hors are also found in the jungles and
hills of some of the northern and north-^
western thanas of lire Ranchi district as well
as in the Palamau District and in the
tributary states further to the west. The
nature of the country occupied by the
tribe may be rouglily described as a long
succession of ranges of w'ooded hills sepa¬
rated by open valleys. These irallcys alone
are fit for cultivation and are dotted over
svith villages sparsely inhabited by agricul¬
tural tribes and castes on a higher level
of culture than the Birhors.

The Birhors themselves generally select

Pliilf VI. —A .hijjlii Birlitn' |jiit I'ouFud ovtjr with k'livttH'Fitiii limndieij i>F ii'titis,
111 fi'uiit of tUo little lioyi* ii!i H stritJ uf piiltli-lt'itf liiril iu coiti'iie of {irepni'atioij.

Flora and Fauna.

comparalively open spaces on the wooded
lull-tops and slopes or the
Flora &&1 edges of the jungles for
Fauft' their laudas or settlements.

These jungles and hiUs
support a tropical flora, among which are
timber trees like the sal (ihorea robitshi)
and the gambar (Gomdimi <jr6orcfl/, wild
fruit trees like the jamun (Eug£mtiJamho-
kfta), the hair (Zkyphtts Jit}uha)t the
mahmi (Bassxa LaUjoUa}, inyrobalans of
different varieties and several kinds of
wild yams and tubers besides bamboos aJid
fibrous creepers like the chop (Bauhinia
Scamiens). Shrubs bearing edible berries
such as the piai (Buchauia LalifoUah
not numerous. And thus the natural
vegetation of Uiesc liills and jungles affords
* but scanty food for the Birhors. Among
the fauna of these woods the deer, the
porcupine, the Iiarc, the rat, and the monkey
arc llic more imporkint from the llirlior s
point of view, as tlicir flcsli is highly prized
by him for food. The tiger, the leopard,
the hyena, tlic bear, the wolf, tlic blue cow

Tbc Birhors.

or »iigm (Bosdaphous iragocamelmts} are
also met vi.ith here and there in these
Jungles. Among birds, tiic peacock, the
pigeon, Uic plover, the partridge, the snipe,
the teal, and parrots arc wortli mentioning.
As may be expected in tlicse surroundings,
the Birhor has developed into a keen
hunter with strong powers of scent, sight
and licaring and lias acquired an inti mate
knowledge of the hatmis and habits of
different birds and animals, and the incdi^
cinal properties of xforious roots and herbs.

The dimale of these parts is cliajac-
terlzed by oppressive heat in the summer
monljis, fairly severe cold in the winter
montlis, and a heavy rain-
Climate. full in the monsoon
months. The maximum
temperature in summer has t>cen known to
exceed 110^ in the shade and the iiiinimurn
in winter has gone down below 40**. The
annual rain-full varies from SO to inches,
so that in Uic rainy months, the Birhor
can no longer move about contihualiy in
pursuit of games but must necessarily stop

CUrttak.

in Kittnbas or leaf-sheds, ddng out Itis
scanty store, if any, of dried corolla of Uic
mohua (Bassia Uiiifolia) flower with some
edible loaves or roots or yams gathered
in the jungle, or with grain exchanged for
or purchased with the sale-proceeds of
honey and bees' wax, ropes made of chop
fibres, or mde vessels made of wood. TJuis,
as is but natural, the flora and fauna of
his liabitat have largely determined tltc
. nature and quantity of his food, the siie of
his food-groups or famias, the character
and malcnal of liis divclliiigs, and generally
influenced liis occupation, material culture,
and even social organization.

II. Jachts and Utiill's.

As their name of Birhor or the ^Jungle*
folk’ suffiests, the tribe still lingers in an
extrcnicly low grade of culture well calcu¬
lated to rejoice the lieari of lijc anthro¬
pologist. They wander about or settle
down far a time in small groups of from
three or four to about ten families, earning
a precarious subsistence by bunting deer

The Birhors.

and other animals and fowls and snaring;
Tnonkejrs, by collecting chop creepers
fiiiiUi scatithitis} and making them into ropes
for barter or sale in the nearest villages
or markets, and by gathering bees wax
and lioney w’hen available. Although the
most cherished occupation of all the men
of the tribe is hunting, the Birhors arc,
according to their mode of living, classed
into two main divisions,—known respec¬
tively as the Uthlus or Bhuliyas (wanderers)
and jaghis or Thanias ( ‘settlers ).
Except in the rainy season, the Uthlu
Birhors move about from jungle to jungle
in small groups witli thcjr famihes, their
scanty belongings, and their gods or hhuh
represented by stones and wooden pegs and
carried in baskets by one or two young
bachelors who walk at the head of the party.
Other boys carry fowds meant for occa¬
sional sacrieecs to the gods ; the men follow
with their nets and tools and weapons; the
women carry on their heads palm-leaf mats,
and wooden mortars and pestles; and both
men and women carry bamboo-baskets

Plat© VIL—-A J^ht Birliuf Ixij in front
of Ilk Jeaf-Uut.

TlicUifilns,

containing their scanty store of dried
mohua flowers and any grains they may
have ; and IJie girls carry earthen pots for
cooking and carrying \ratcr. Except during
the rainy season

they arc obliged to spend at one place,
they ordinarily stop and hunt al one jungle
for about a week or two and then move on
to another jungle and similarly camp and
hunt there, and again move on to _stlll
another jungle, and thus \rander about in
search of food until they come hack lo
their original starling point in about two
years’ time and start once more on a
similar tour along the same or sUgbUy
ditferent route.

The Jaghi Birhors, on the other hand,
are those families that, tired of toilsome
wanderings, have settled down for a
comparatively long period generally on some
hill-top or the outskirts of some jungle,
A few Birhors of this latter class may squat
on some bind near the hill-side or clear
some land in the jungle for purposes of
more or less permanent cultivation but the

The Birhors.

majority are landless and live mainly by
hunting and by making and selling ropes.
Birhors, both Uthtu and Jagki, however,
sometimes rear a scanty crop of maiac or
beans by burning a patch of jungle, scrat*
ching the soil and souing in ashes. Even
the landed JaghI Birhor rarely stops at one
place for any considerable length of time.
The slightest ill-treatment, real or snpposed,
from the landlord of the place or from people
of the villages near about or the growing
scarcity of chop creepers in the neighbouring
jungles induces him to migrate to some
more suitable place, or to fall back into his
old UthluQT nomad life. Indeed, there is no
jaghi settlement I have known that is more
than ten or fifteen years old, attliougfi I
have heard of a few tJiat are older, and
have kncuvn some that luve clumged their
old liittdii within the last six years and
removed it to a distance of several miles or
joined another iattdn. Some Jaghis have
been known to ^e^'e^t to their old nomad or
Uihlti life Out of sheer nitiuif And even some
landed jaghi families are knoivn to leave their

Thejagliis.

taudas and rove about all tlicir seanty
belongings leading an Uthlu Itfc^ from after
h;irvest in December until the rains set in
by about the middle of June, Generallyi
^Jiighi Birhor after his inamage with an
UlUlii wife, sooner or later, joins the group
of his Vddii rather*in-Ia\v and takes to a
nomadic life. And this is one reason why
Jaghis now-a-days are averse to nianying
their sons and daughters to Uthlus. As
may be naturally expected, the Utlilus by
reason of their greater exclusiveness have
retained more of tlieir primitive customs
and usages than the jaghis who come more
frequently in contact with the Hindus and
HinduLsed tribes of the vTiUeys. Still an
at\alysls of the culture even of the Lftlilus
will reveal certain traits tliat do not appear
to have evolved from within and cannot be
attributed to nice, but betray evident traces
of social environmental influences or cultu¬
ral contact

III, The Tandas anp its Houses.

The seldemente of Jaghi groups as well

The Birhors.

as tlie temporary encampments of Uthhi
groups are both knovvti as
Dwelliflgs. iiiinfiJs, A tiuida usually
consists of aUmi Jialf a
do^en or more huts. In a fiintln of the
Uthlus the liuts are mere improvised leaf-
sheds in the form of low triangular kiimhas
or straw-shelters such as their nciglJxmrs
the Muiidas and the Oraons erect near their
ricc-helds to guard them when the crops
are ripening. Srtudler kunibiis arc called
chii'-kiimbas, and the comparatively larger
ones om'kiiiiibas or ^}^ar-kH/l^bas. Eacli
family erects Its separate shed or sheds
made of branches and leaves. Each of
these sheds has one openingp sometimes
provided with a door made of branches and
leaves, Tive liousc.s in a Jaghl hitiJti are a
little more pretentious. Although the roofs
of their huts are generally made of branches
covered over uith leaves, the Jujlhi huts
have better walls, some of which arc made
of branches plastered over with mud, and
a few even wholly made of mud. Their
huts usually possess slightly raisctl floors.

DvidUrt^>

Although each family has generally one hut,
it is partitioned off into at least two compart¬
ments, one serving as the lumber-room in
which their possessions, counting gene¬
rally of one or more iron ases, hunting
nets, rope-making tools, and a few earthen
pots in which dried mahua fruit and perhaps
grains are stored, and where the ancestor-
spirits are also appeased, and another
and a larger one forming a kitchen and

sleeping room combined.

A comer of tlie larger room is
generally staved off as a pen for fowls or
for goats or cattie, if the owner happens
to possess any. In some tomins ^
be one or two comparatively well-to-do
Birhor families who may have mud walls
to their huts and even a separate shod or
lean-to for cattle. Some clans, such as
the Ludumba, erect close to their dwclhngs
a miniature hut or thit’kimlfa to serve as a
spirit-hut In this hut may

b« SCO. a small bamboo tea oat od
‘bonga-pcU' « spirit-box in wIik'* » ‘'‘tlii
4

The Birhors,

ania rice in a small bamboo tube, a little
vermilion, and other puja requisites are
kept Some dans have also their thdns
or spirit-seats adjoining the settlement,
where lumps of clay, pieces of stone, or
wooden pegs represent the tutelary deities
of the clan- These receive offerings of
rice and sweets, and sacrifices of fowls and
goats, as occasion arises. TJ^ese will be
described in a future chapter. By the
side of mostsettlements is a ‘sacred
grove’ called the Jayar or Jilu-ja^'ar, marked
by one or more trees and in some setUe-
ments a few blocks of stone. This is the
scat of the Sejidra-bovgas or spirits prcsl*
ding over the hunt, such as the Chandi-
bonga and other Surtgi-bottgas or spirits
common to the coipmnnity, and there,
before every important Jiunting expedition,
the nets of all the hunters are placed in a
heap, and fowls are sacrificed before them,
and, after the party return homo, here they
cut and dress and divide tJic game. Othlus,
too, somcfinies select a suitable tree near their
camps to mark their Jilu-jayar during their

BacJielcn* Domihrks, 51

stay at any particular place. Although
there are no fences round the Jaghi houses
nor any compounds, there is generally a
small open space in front of each house.

In some of the tandiis, both of the Jaghis
as well as of the Uthlns, may be seen at one
end of the settlement, a

SiS-ora 01 sl«pinshot

DOTi&itaiie^ exclusively used by lUe
young bachelors of the
settlement. The young maidens sleep with
some old widow in a similar hut nsually
at some distance from the boys
Although outwardly a strict moral disci¬
pline appears to be maintained m the^
dormitories, closer investigation reveas
the existence of a general laxity of morals

among the Inmates. ^

Except the annual Spring Hunt or a
wedding in some compamtively well-oft
family, or a Panchayat convened to pumsh

some serious social offence, when the men

of a number of hiidas living uit nn an
easy distance of one another am mvitc
to take part, there is hardly any occasion

Tiui^ Birkors.

when 3 number of these scattered groups
or tandas come together. The different
clans of the tribe hang together loosely as
so many intermarrying groups^ each with a
tradition of common descent^ talking the
same language, following the same pursuits,
and agreeing in substance but often differing
in details in their social and domestic
customs and usages and in their religious
and magico-rcUgious rites and observances,

IV. The Daily Life of the Birhors.

Tlie men rise from their bed at cock-
crow and be^n to wind ( kmai ) chop
( ) hbres made out of barks of the

Bahunia scmidetts creepers collected the
previous day and soaked in water and split
{chim ) into fibres the previous evening.
Then they unite the strands by twisting
( uiu } them round each other, and tighten
(/•nhin } tlicm with the help oi tht chutdii
stick. The women generally rise a little
later but before sunrise, and assist the men
in making ropes. When day-light ^peam,
the women go to attend to household

Plate Tin.— A J§tfhi Biiljoi* twiatiug ropw ift front
of Ilia leaf liuts. Tbe forkeil wikhI planted in tlie
ground ia the hmioil and the slmrt. stick in liis band is
chutelu

i '

j i

II'

'I oiil t;S U .1.

Daily Routine oj Life. S3

work and the men smooth ( hot ) the ropes
with the hmod which is a short bifurcated
piece of wood. With the ropes thus made
the men go on preparing tetheirs for cattle
and s/jtds or carrying nets. The men work
at these until about 8 a.m. when they
cleanse their teeth with a small twig for a
tooth'pick and i^'ash their faces, and han'c
their morning meal either of rice and
pot-herb ( sag ) or of boiled corollas of the
inataia flowers. Neither men nor women
take a daily bath, but all generally bathe
only once or twice a week, It is only at
these baths and at the end of a ceremonial
poUution tJiat they wash their scanty
clothes. The men ordinarily wear a bha-
goa or short narrow strip of cloth, one end
of which is wrapped round the waist, the
other end being passed between the thiglis
and attached to the part which serves as
the waist-band; and the women wear a
broader waist-cloth known as a lahattga.

After breakfast the men go to tiie woods
either to hunt or to collect chop. The
Women sweep the hute in the morning and

The Birhors.

brusli the utensils, if any, and fetcli water
from some spring or stream, and cook the
morning meal and tlien take their meals^
Then they cither go to the jungles to collect
maittta flowers or edible leaves, yams, and
tubers or go to the neighbouring markets
or villages if tliey have ropes and sikas to
sell. If there are more than one w'oman
in a [reuse, those that remain at home
twist ropes or weave siias. Children, from
about the tenth or eleventh year of their
life, generally help their parents in making
ropes.

The majority of the Birhors live from hand
to mouth. When after a day's unsuccessful
hunt or a fruitless search for chop creepers
a Birhor secs no prospect of liaving other
food for the following day, his wife or
dauglitcr gathers piska yams, boils them
in water, peels them and then leaves them
for the niglit in some stream of flowing
water so as to remove their acridity. In the
morning these are brought home, boiled again
ill water, smashed and eaten. These yams
are available rin January and February and

Daily Routine of Life.

also in July and August. On my amval
on a hot April day at a seltlement consisting
of only four Jaghi fanuIteSi I learnt that two
of the families had had little or nothing to
eat for a day and a half, as all the chop the
men of the four families had collected a
day or two earlier together with tJieir
axes had been forcibly snatched away from
tliem by an over-zealous servant of the
proprietor of tlie Jungle where tlicy Jiad
been to collect chap, and thus tlicy had no
ropes, strings or nets to sell.

When the men return home, generally
late in the after-noon, with ci$op creepers,
each family le^ve their chop immersed in
the water of some adjacent pool or stream
for about an hour and then take ttiem home.
After their evening meal the men split the
chop stems ( boyar ) into strands, and then
llicy ah go to sleep. In winter months
they kindle a fire in the middle of the hut-
floor, and tJie family sleep around it. Fire,
it may be mentioned, is almost always
made by friction wiUi two pieces of wood
or bamboo.

Tht Birhors,

From October to the bcguiiimgof June,
the men go out on hunting excursions
or cotlect chop and gather honey, when
available; and the women gather vtohtta
fruit and flowers and collect yams and
tubers in their respective seasons. This is
indeed the brightest part of tlie year
for the Birhor; and it is now that the
dull daily routine of life is, from time
to time, broken by weddings and other
festivities for wliich large quantities of ili
or rfce-bcer are requisitioned.

In June, July and August, the few Jaghi
Birhors who have cultivable fields attend to
their cultivation, and the Utlilus, who at
this season, camp at some selected spot, as
well as landless Jaghis make wooden
cups and bowls which they exchange for
grains or sell for cash in the neighbouring
villages and buy rice or other grains with
the sale-proceeds of these tilings or with
any money they may have saved out of the
sale^proceeds of game in the winter and
sunuThcr months. Their women sometimes
work on ivages at transplanting paddy seed-

PUtc IX*'—Jiiglii Birlmra in tvout of tlieir
leaMiiit going out to hunt. Thu jouug man on
the luft is c^irrjing a buuting-nnt ^lung on %
stick acrosa liia sliuuUier*

Daily Rottihie tf Lift. S?

lings on the fields of people in the neigh¬
bouring villages. In September, men again
begin to gatlier diop and make strings and
sikas or carrying-nets and their women take
tliem to the neighbonring villages lor sale
Of exchange, Huntiiig*nets are also made
at this time for use in the coming season
and occasionally for sale to Oraons, Mundas
and others who care to have them. From
September to November, Uthiu as well as
Jaght wTsmen occasionally gather leaves ol
a kind of w4!d date-palm, which they call
*j 7 fl ( Ftenis sylvestris ) and plait bed-mats
with Uicm when they have no chop fibres
to twist.

Thus the few elementary arts and crafts
that the Birhors have acquired or invented,
though not wholly detenmned by their
physical environment, have been greatly
favoured by it. Agaio, in order to seU
their humble manufactures of wood and
rope-fibres, and to buy their sranty clothing
and tinsel ornaments, their iron tools and
weapons, their earthen pots and such
humble condiments as salt and pepper, all

The Birlton.

Birhors — Jaghi as well as Uthiu—neces¬
sarily come in contact with other tribes and
castes in the open valleys near their native
hills and jungles. And in the rainy months
their women often work in the neighbouring
viibgcs as fidd-labourcrs in company with
labourers of other castes and tribes.
Among the Jaghis, again, some of their
compamtively more intelligent and well-to-
do members enter into ceremonial friend¬
ship with men of other castes and tribes
inJiabiting the neighbouring villages. Some
instances of racial miscegenation will be
referred to later on. The inevitable influence
of such contact with coniparativcly superior
but mostly analogous culture may be traced
in the nianncrs, customs, beliefs, and prac¬
tices, and even in the vocabulary, folk-lore,
and songs of the Birhors. But however
much their physical and social environment
may have influenced fiirhor life, the vital
elements of their culture — their totemistlc
social structure and animistic religious
system — ^would appear to be in tlieir
essentials a genuine product of the taco.

Plftte X.—Tjpe uf a UirhSf adult
(Profile) [Samel hoar ckn].

^ 5 ^

Plttte XL—Front view of the man
ill Plate X.

Rau and Physical Features, 59

V , Race and Languages

EliiTkically the Blrhors belong to Uie same
darkskinned, ( melanoiis), short-statured,
long-headed ( dolicoce-
Bafleand phalic ) wa\ 7 'b^ed
(cyraohichons ).

broad-nosed (platyrrhmc )
race to which Uie Miindas, the Santh^s,
the Bhumij, llie Hos and other allied
tribes belong. Some antliropomctrical
measurements tliat I liave taken, as well as
statistics tliat I have collected as to the siac,
sex, longevity and fecundity of a few
Birhor families, arc given in the Appendix,
Like other allied tribes, the Birhors
speak a language now classed among tlxe
Austro-Asiatic sub-family of the Austne
Unguis tic fpniiiy wliicii extends throug i

Indonesia and Melanesia

Sir George Grierson and Uic authors of tlic
Census Reports name tlie Birhor dialect ^
'Birhar' but the people
t,a»su&f9- tlicmsclvcs do not appear
to make this nice phonetic

the Birtion,

distinction between the nnmc of the tribe
and that of the district. According to Sir
George Griereotii the Birhor diafect is more
closely connected with Mtindari than with
Santali, Indeed, I have heard some
Mundas of fianchi naming the ‘Birhors’
as'Bir Mundas* or 'Jimgle-Mundas’. But,
on the other hand, some Birhors maintain
that they are nearer kinsmen to the SanUls
than to the Mundas tliough they could give
no reasons for this assertion. And in the
dialect spoken even by tlie Ranchi Birhors,
although it is more closely connected with
Mundari than with Santali, one cannot help
noticing a few peculiartics that occur only
in Santali and not in Mundari. Curiously
enough some of these peculiarities occur in
the corrupt dialect used by tlie Mundari-
spcaking Oraons of the Ranchi thana.
Thus, the very name *hor* (man ) in the
compound *Bir-hor' is also the Santali
form of Mundari ‘horo*. Again the inser¬
tion of an h sound after the ^a' sound in
certain words is Santali rather than tiie
Mundan. Tims, for instance, Mundari

Language,

taikenaing' (I remained ) becomes ‘taheka*
naing’ in Santali and 'tahikamung' in Birhor
as also in the comipt Mundari dialect used
by some Oraons of the Ranchi thana; so
again, ‘dsing* which is the Mundari word
for 'today' appears as 'tihing' in Bir*hor,
and as 'teheng' in Santali.

In the Census of 1921 the total Eirhor
population in Chota-Nagpur was found to
be 1,510, namely 749 mates and 761 femaks
as against 2340 ( 1104 males and 1,236
females) in the Census of 1911.

Detailed census figures for Birhor popula¬
tion and for speakers of the Birhor dialect
in 1911 and in 1921, as

ITumsTicil also a short vocabulary arc
Stsongth- given in the Appendix.

The rapid deforestation
of Chota Nagpur and the consequent
diminution of the supply of game and forest
produce, would appear to be responsible to
some extent for this decrease in population.

CHAPTER in.

—: 0 :—

Social System; Taoda Organisation
and Inter-taoda Relations..

Such social organisiition as the Birhora
possess Is very Gimpte though not indeed
absolutely primitive. They have, at the
present day, a two-fold organization,—
namely, an organization for purposes of
food-quest and another for purposes
of marriage and kinship. Tlie present
chapter deals with ttte former.

The tribe, as we have seen, is divided
up into scattered communities each consis¬
ting of from three or four to about nine
or ten families who move about as one
band from jungle to jungle in search of
food or live togetlicr in or near some jungle
as a comparatively settled local group or
imitia.

The

1, The Tanda Officials*

Each tandd has a headman supposed
to be supematuially elected. Tliis head¬
man is called the Naya —
Th» Nsjft a name probably derived

lot fi-oiji Sanskrit *Nayak' or

leader. Although the
Naya is primarily the priest of the group,
he is regarded also as its secular headman.
He is cJiosen of the spirits, and he alone
can propitiate them and keep them in order
and thereby avert mischief and misfortune
and secure good luck to the community.
Although he is regarded as the 'malik* or
lord of the settlement, l;js position is only
that of a chief among equals. On the
death of a Naya, the will of the spirits as
to his successor is known tlirough the
medium of a ghost-doctor or viati of wide li
ttierc are one or two in almost every group.
The mtUi frantically swings his head from
side to side and works himself up into a
state of ecstasy, anti in that state of obses¬
sion reveals the will of the spirits. The

r/;c or Friesf*

spirits, however, appear mvaiiabljr to prefer
a son of the late Naya, so that Uie post of
the Naya in every Birhor ianda is practi-
cally hereditary. The Mati asics the spirits.
**Whom will you have for your Naya ?“
Iq answer the spirits, through the mouth
of the Mati, give a description of the desired
successor which generally points unmis-
takcably to a son of the Naya, Thus tlie
spirits declare,—-"We want the man who
is of such and such an appearance, and
has so many children ; we sliall obey liim.”

When a new Naya is selected in this
way, his first act is to take a balli lin some
spring or stream. On his return he is
conducted to the Jilu-Jaynr where the
hunting-nets of the settlement have been
placed in a heap. There the new Naya
offers rice to the spirits, and the men of
the /artda go out for a hunt to test the
correctness of the selection. If the hunt
proves successful, tiiere is rejoicing in the
iafjdti. If, however, it lias been a failure,
the Naya is called upon for an explanation.
And the Mati again works himself up to

The Naya or Ptiest.

a state of ecstasy and finds out what
spirit lias been standing in tlie way of
success. On liis declaring the name o(
the spirit and the sacrifices he requires,
the new Naya proceeds to conciliate the
unfriendly spirit and thus puts himself
right rvitli man and spirit. As it is through
sacrifices offered by the Naya that success
attends a hunting party, the Naya receives
the neck (i:}iattdi) and half the fiesh of the
back (called fi/si) of every animal killed
at a hunt by tire men of his whether

the Naya attended the hunt or not. If he
attends the hunt, he gets in addition to his
special sliare, the usual sliarc allotted to
each hunter. VVlicn any such g^roe has
been sold by the liuntcrs, the Naya is given
two annas as price of the bist and .

The Naya appoints a man of his lo^
group as the Kotwar or Diguar whose duties
arc to call people to the

Tha Eetwar
or Digw-

hunt, to attend at the
sacrifices and make all

necessary

arrangements

T/i£ BtrAors,

for them. Even if lie fails to attend a hunt
he is given a share of the game equal to
what each of the hunters receives.

The position of a Mati is different from
that of the Naya or the Kotw^ar, The Mati
is neither elected nor
Thfl Uftti. appointed. And in fact
there may be, and often
are, more than one mati in a tonds.
Again, there may be a fdnJa without a
Mati, in which case (which is however rare)
recourse has to be had to the Mati of some
neighbouring fanda whenever required,
tt Is only a person, generally a nervous
person, who feels a call to the vocation of
a Mati, and after undergoing some prelimi¬
nary training under another Mati and
observing certain strict rules as to diet and
Ivors hip attains or is believed to have
attained the requisite occult power, who
is recognised as a Mati. Such a person is
believed to have the power of second sight.
The function of a Mati is to discover which
particular b/iui or bUu/s are causing any
sickness or other misfortune to the com-

T/w Matt.

muTiiiy and what are the sacrifices required
to propitiate them; and it the duty of
the Naya to offer up the requisite sacrifices.
When there has been a new birth in a
certain hills which may not stand pollution
fcliftiit) have to be avoided by a hunting
party of that until the Jiarta cere¬

mony of the child has been celebrated on
the seventh day fro'in the birth. It is the
business of tlie Mati to discover and declare
which hills would resent such contact.

II, Monkey -hunt ok GAm*SENDRA.

The association of each group is,

□3 we have seen, based on the need far
association in the food-quest. The prin¬
cipal occupation of the Birhor is to secure
food by hunting. And, as is but na^l,
his social organiaation as well as his religion
and his system of taboos are essentially
concerned with success or ‘luck ’m hunting.
Any case of ill-luck that befalls the commu¬
nity either in respect o£ food, health

The Bithors,

other oIcmentEl conoem of life is attributed
to the infringement of some taboo by some
member of the community and tJic conse¬
quent wTath of some ancestral or other
spirit.

Rope-niaking and monkey-catching are
the two favourite occupations whicJ; distin¬
guish the Birhor tandan or food-groups
from other aboriginal communities in Chota
Nagpur. The choice of these special
occupations either as means or as modes
of food^uest cannot be said to have been
determined solely by the geographical
conditions of the flora and fauna of the
Birhor s habitat. TJie selective intelligence
of man can liere be seen dealing with the
environment in its own way even in such
a rude community- as that of the Birhors.
The various factors in its past history or
racial constitution that guided the tribal
mind in its selection of special modes of
food-quest or determined its aptitude for
and pursuit of special arts and occupa¬
tions are generally difficult, if not impos¬
sible, to tmee. But it appears reasonable

Plate Xll.—A group of Jilgbi BirliCi^a warkiug
in chop fibre? at a cenhul placL* in tbeir

Gari-Sendya.

to suppose that the racial factor has had
its share along with geof^phical and
perhaps historical factors in producing the
net result*

The collection of chop and its manufac*
ture, like the gathering of edible herbs, tubers,
honey and bees' wax, are no longer pursued
collectively by the entire but each

Birhor family gathers Its own herbs and
tubers, honey and bees' wax, and collects
its own chop and manufactures its own
ropes, strings and nets for its ow'o use or
for sale or barter for its owm benefit,
although in these occupations members of
one family may not tmoften associate with
those of one or more others, and members
of a tattda may often be seen sitting
together on some open space inside the
tanda engaged tn friendly chatting wliile
splitting eftop fibres, uniting the strands
and making tliem into strings, ropes or
nets. The monkey‘'hunt or Gari-setidm
is, however, sUU conducted jointly by the
adult members of an entire fOn^a and the
game is sliared by them in the manner

The Birhots.

dtscribed below. As monkey-calching is
the ch^factetistic inode cf food*quest
adopted by the Birbors^ a somewhat
detailed account of the procedure followed
is given below. On the morning of the
appointed day, the Naya goes to a neigh¬
bouring stream or spring, and there bathes,
fills a jug with water, and brings it home.
Then after changing his loin-cloth, the
Ndyd^ in company with one or two dders
of the rd»dd, proceeds \vith a handful of
^rua rice and tiie jug of water to the Juyar
which his wife has already cleaned wilJi
mud or, if available, with cowdiing diluted
in water. The lias already carried

to the JOyHr and placed in a heap all the
nets of the intending hunters of the f
Before this heap of nets the ATaya stands
on 1^ left leg with his right heel resting
on his left knee, and wijJi Ids face to the
east, and, with arms extended forward,
pours a little water three times on the
ground and invokes aU the spirits by name
for success in hunting, as follows *^Here
I am making a jibation in your names.

X111Oliai^uli Pnju til the Jilu-jajar (sacred grore). 'rii«"
]»nefll (Nilva) h seateij witli rice-gmiiiH it> n leal'-cup in lii=t fnnnL Tb^
|jiiiil;iiig in-tta aiiil sticks are placed iu a heap before liim.

Gari-Saidra.

May blood of game flow like this/' Thus
is magic blended wilh primitive teli^on-
The then sits down before the nets

and puts three vennilion marks on the
ground before them, and on tliese vermilion
marks sprinkles a little SraB rice, and
addresses the spirits as follows:—^“To-day
I am offering this rice to you all May we
have speedy success. May game be caught
in our nets as soon as w’e enter the
jungles.” Then they return home leaving
tlie nets at the jayar. After breakfast each
intending hunter takes up from the jnyar
his own hunting-net {jhBl) and clubs
(thitiga ) and faints or bamboo poles for
fixing nets and proceeds to the selected
jungle.

Precautions are taken beforehand so
lliat while leaving the none of the

party may chance to see
Omonta- an empty vessel being
carried along or a person
easing himself. Such sights are regarded
as bad auguries. Nor may anyone of the
party utter tlie name of any person not

The Birhors.

belonging to the fandu. For the very
mention of such names will, it is believed,
through what is considered a natural
connection, attract to the party the malice
and 'evil eye' (literally, 'evil mouth and evil
teeth') of the stranger so named. With
such traditional precautions enjoined by
Birbor society, the party proceed to the
selected jungle. Arrived there, all sit
down together on the
AvaS' ground for a short while
in what is called an mt-'ils

or rendezvous.

The Kotwar now touches each net with
a Hr/1 or ebony (Dyospyros iomentosa or
tnclanosylon) twig and
Sana hands it over to the Naya.

With this twig, the Naya
perfomis what is knoum as
'b&na s&na’ inorder to neutralise tiie harm¬
ful effects of the evil eye of any of their
DW'n women in the which may have

been directed, even though involuntarily,
against the party. With a low murmering
voice he says.'—

Bam &imt.

“Ne tihing do lelkuletaku orire tnenSko a
unkura nutmnte bioito sanSo kSi^ng.
Sendrft sinukanalc hoikoka, Okoo

lellmicfai onira metre binirc soso sunum
dulo kai,” “Today, I am making sflw*
in the names of those [women] who
their eyes at tig while sending us away .
May we have success in the hunt as soon
3SWC go (enter the jungle)* May oil of
the bh,hm or marking^nut (s^mcarpts
anacardiant) drop into the eyes anus
of those who cast evil eyes on us, .

Now some of the parly arc told off and
go intwoes.in different directions to (china}
look for monkeys. This part of
openitions is known as chkbua. When
these men return with the desired infor¬
mation, the most suitable position in the
jungle is selected for gbati where the
hunters set up their nets in a line from
tree to tree. Two or tJiree men remain
squatting in concealment with sUcks or
clubs in their liands at a distance of about
twenty yards straight in front of the line
Ut, *bo l«W (f*i )w -“I («J

The Birhors.

of nets. These men are hnown as SfSvi^alms,
Two other men are selected as ahnidiis
and are stationed furtlicr off, one about
twenty yards to the riglit and another
about the same distance to the left of
the afawakas. At about tlie same distance
further off in front of each atomdli stands
a bajhur, and stiff further ahead of each
of them at some distance stands a botsori

Two other men styled beberm^ one from
each side, drive the game towards the
bnjburs. Then Uie beberas and the ba-
jkufs togetlicr drive the monkeys towards
the a/or/idas. The ataisUhss also come up,
and all together drive the monkeys towards
the nets and strike them dead with their
clubs and sticks. The game bagged, the
nets are taken down and tlie party leave
ffie forest.

When they arrive at a suitable spot
near some stream or other water, they light
a tire, generally by friction and scorch
the monkeys in it, wash tliem clean,
and cut tiiem up, and take out the brains
(hutan^}, the heart (karji}t the lungs

Sana Snno.

(boro), U»e liver (ihim ), the entrails
{ ku}}di ), and the fiesh of the fore

leg'^joint place them in a

chmkant or bag improvised vfith gungu
leaves (latjia ^koui ) servu up with reed-
ncedles {cAflrw).

These are roasted by plaxHng burning
logs of wood above and below the thdl-
kam. When roasted, the meat is taken
out and distributed among tlie mem¬
bers of the party. But they must not
help themselves to it until the Naya who
was given a bit of the ihim has by
himself roasted it by the same method
and standing a iHtlc apart from the
rest and with this roasted meat in hand,
and his back towards them, has offered a
little to all the spirits jointly {h^prom
duprom guch gjir ), and promised them
simitar offerings in future if they always
brought them such game. Then the Na^
first cats up this tUint, and joins his
companions, and takes liis share of the other
roasted meat; and then every one ^ts his

own share, wth the exception of hk share

The Birkors.

of the entrails ( poffa ), ehdnrbol (taiJ)
and feet ( banka), which he carries
home for his family,* and this is known
as banapa, Eacli one who took his net
to the hunt gets a hind kg (bulu), and
each bebera receives a fore leg (phari J for
his additional share of the game. The rest
of the meat is divided into as many shares
as dierc are men in the party besides one
additional share for the Naya. With their
respective shares the hunters now go
home.

It is not only the organization that

IS based on the necessity for association

latetttda .'■f “n-™®

AaeociAtim: food by himtmg j oace a

Hnatiag. year may be seen a larger
sssociatiOD in which almost

lJ:c able-lxjdted men belonging to a
number of fan^os situated witiun a day’s
journey from one anotJier, come together
for purposes of hunting. In this annual
hunting expedition known as the Disutn
sendra (or regional huot), xvc meet with
a rudimentary form of association in larger

Inter-tanda Association : Hunting, 77

wholes than the The Nsyss and

other elders of the different groups act as
umpires in any dispute regarding game
between the hunters of tlie different fetn^aj,
and consult one anotlicr in other matters
connected with the expedition. This expC’
dition starts on the Sunday before the full
moon in the month of Hctistiotlt. The
Vitpiars of tlie different tandilA communi¬
cate the information at the markets tliat the
Diaum sendra will be held at such and such
a hill or jungle, and at the same time notify
the date to all the fandas concerned. In
each mda, on the night preceding the
date so fixed, the NayO and his wife liave
to observe strict sexual continence.

In the morning, the intending hunters
take an early meal, and proceed to tlie Jayar
and each tikes up his own net Every
liunter also takes with him a club and two
taints or bamboo poles for fixing the net.
Axes are also carried. Bows and arrows arc
not ordinarily used, but if the parly in^d
going to a great distance, they sometimes
take bows and arroivs, TJicrc is no pro-

The Birhors.

hibitioti against meeting women while
starting on the expedition nor against
carrying copper coin or other metal. But
no man or woman carrying an empty vessel
must be seen by any of the party while
leaving the village. During the absence
of the hunters from the village, the females
of the settlement are required to maintain
strict sexual cliastity, as otherwise the
party is sure to be unsuccessful in the hunt.
On the way, parties of hunters from the
other f^ndss come and join the expedition.
When all the parties have arrived at some
distance from the particutar hill or jungle
where they intend hunting, a ceremony
known as haihera is performed by one of
the Nayas present for the success of the
whole party in the hunt. The cereinony
is as follows :-The hunters all sit down on
the ground and their nets arc arranged in
a row before them. The Diguar selected for
the purpose touches each of the nets with
a htrtid or riVif (Diospyro^ tomentom) or
htond twig which he then hands over to the
Naya, This is known as lluxpcdiettt. The

Inter-tanda Association: Hunting. 79

Naya holding the tifU twig in his hand
sits down with his face towards the dircc^
tion from which the party came and makes
toitera by addressing the Deity or Si«5r'
honga as follows "St Singbonga

Roja.okoe Idkidkcna inia nted datamocka
tihindo bdmo-bemi kSnding.
Jaise sendra b^nokiijiate ^rdda kkdge
hoikoka. Titling do arlidddta sarpala tiril-
dahura bdnao berSi kSnSing\ “Thou in
the skv, O Singbonga, king, should
anybody [ of our mia ] have cast an
cwl look, and [ his or her ] evd eye, ev il
tooth or evil moutti, has faUen [on onr
[party], may that be
setting at rest (banao^hertt or ba% b^) all
[evil influences]. May [blood of] game
flow even as the u-ater of a river flows

1 [do now] neutralise the effects ofthccu

eye, etc., with this tiril twig." As the
goes on with his invocation, he passes the
k'itwig under each of his hips alternately

three times. Then he places the bwg on

U.D pith by which

all evil influences in the slwpc ol Ihe evjl

The Birho/^.

eye, etc., may be set at naught, VVJiile
reciting the invocation, the Naya mentally
names by turns every individual man and
woman left behind in the tanda —for wlio
knows but some one amongst them may
be the unconscious possessor of the e\'il
eye and thus unintentionally hinder success
in the hunt 1

Arrived at tJieir destination, two men
are told off as ‘bebera’ or leaders of the
beaters who may number twelve or more.
They drive each from a different side all
the animals on towards the nets spread out
m a line. The hunters then kill the animals
by striking them with their clubs or hacking
them with their axes.

Whenever a deer is killed by one of the
groups of hunters, the Naya of that group
smears some sa^ leaves with a little of the
blood of tlie slain animal, and holding
tlicse leaves in bis hand aits down with his
face to the east and offers by ivay of a
solatium the blood stained Imes—or rather
tJie blood in the leavesp—one after another
to the different spirits of "the hills and

lukr^anda Associatuin ^ HittiHitg, 81

slrcams” ( Pahar-parbai-Sarha diiarlta ) by
name, saying—'‘Today wcare taking away
your 'goat', and so we offer you tius sacri¬
fice." Deer, it may be mentioned, is
cuphcmcstically termed the 'goat of the
spirits.

If success is delayed, the Sldti citlicf
lightly strikes the ground ^vitli a stick or
divining rod, or takes up a liandfiil of
tnyrobalan (nonra or amfoAi} leaves and
intently cons them to see wiiat particular
spirit or spirits have ibeen liiodeiing
success in the; tiunt. hen lie has

discovered Uus, lie hands over the leaves
to the Noya who now makes 'hnifwra'
(as described above)witli Utese leaves
instead o£ with «rwo rice, and offers the
myrobahm leaves at the spot to the

spirits named by the MaU. The
also offers a pinch of powdered tobacco
to the hapfmn or ancestor spirits of
the community and particularly to the
spirits of such of the members of tlic com¬
munity as died on hunting cKpedihons,—
6

The B/r/jors.

for such spirits are befieved to be particu¬
larly active in hindering success in hunting.
If this fails to secure success in hunting
the party has no doubt but that soiue sexual
taboo has been infringed by the people
of the tsnda.

When the hunting party return home, the
wife of each hunter first ivashcs the feet of
her husband, and then all the women pro¬
ceed with oil and water to the house of the
Ndya and there each woman washes bis feet
and anoints them with oil.

A very interesting ceremony is now
reverently performed by the wife of each
hunter in whose net an animal lias been
caught. This is called the chumSn or
kissing ceremony and is a copy of tlie ckmn^n
ceremony of the bridegroom and bride
at a wedding. The woman cleanses a space
in front of her luit with mud or cowdung
and water, and on this spot the slain animal
is laid down. She then takes up a plate
on which arc placed an earthen lamp, a
few blades of tender grass-shoots, and a
lithe unhusked rice. The plate containing

lnti:r-tanda Associations Hunting. S3

these things is waved three times round
ttic head of the dcct, then a few grains of
paddy and a few blades of grass are throvm
on its head, and finaUy ttic woman warms
her hands over the flame of tlie lamp,
touches the cheeks of the deer with han<fe
thus warmed, and kisses tlie hands herself.
On the second or third day a fowl is sacri¬
ficed to the *'Gorkhiii bhtif of fhe deer
(or the spirit Uiat tends deer as a cowherd
tends cattle) and another fowl to the
CJiowrasi Hdpmt or eighty-Eour ( i. e.
Innumerable) ancestor-spin Is. and a hUle
milk to the Motlier-goddesses— Devi and

others.

All the animals kiUed at the liunt arc
finally taken to the Jilo-jayar and there
skinned, dressed, and chopped into picce^
The heads of the animals arc roasted and
eaten by the men alone, but not men whose
wives are pregnant Should such a mtm
cat any portion of the head of the ffime he
lias to pay the price of, or supply* toec fowls
that will be rwjuired tn propitiate llic
spirib known as bhui ( spints

TIu Birhors,

hunting) and Clmwrasi HapfQin (the eighty-
four spirits of the dead ancestors ), Unless
these sacrifices are offered in expiation of
the intrigement of the taboo, the men of
the fiindcl will have no success in future
hunting expeditions. The remainder of the
flesh is divided in the following manner r
The neck and the flesh of one side { bid )
of the back will be the perquisites

over and above his usual share as a mem¬
ber of the community. The man in wlioSle
net any game was caught will receive in
addition to his usual share, one knee-joint
and flesh of tlie other side ( bid ) of the
back. Of the two beaters, each gets one of
t!»e front legs, and the Diguar gets one
knee-joint, in addition to their usual shares.
The rest of the meat is divided in equal
shares amongst all the families in the fdftdff,
even if owing to illness or to the absence
of any male member of any family such a
family was unrepresented in the hunting
expedition. In ordinary bunts, as distin¬
guished from the great annual Bisti Sikar,
except the Niit/S and the Diguar no one

Inter-laiuia Assodatimt v Huniittg, 85

who was not a member of the hunting party
receives a share of tlie game. This Icxccp-
Hon is made in the case of the N^a because
it is through his services in offenng proper
sacrifices that game is obtained; and the
same exemption is made in favour of the
Diguar because he attends to the r^mre-
mentsof the Nm at tlic

fices. Even when any game IS sold hy me

hunters, the ms, as wc have seen, mial be
paid a sum of two annas as pnee ol
special share besides his usual share
any money or grain obtained ^ the pnee

d thigao,.. So ako 11- Df“ "‘J

receive half an anna as price of a knec-join
In the ordinary daily hunts of eac
separate generally the ^mc

dL is adopted as in the
with the following differences .1 _

is not required to observe
the night preceding the Disum ^ra.
Two men ate selected as he^

These men drive, each from a _
side alt the animals towards Itm nets spra
out’in a Une, There is no prohibition

Tiui Birhors.

against the sale of game caught in these
Informal hunts as tlicre is in the ease of tlio
game killed at the IKstm Smdra. When
any game lias been sold and not brought
home, a little hair or, if possible, a bit of
its skin with the hairs on, is brought home
and the chumiin or kissing ceremony is
performed over it by Uiree women as is
done over the game itself after the iJtVuni
Sendra,

Wliereas women may not join the Disum
Set^ra, they may accompany ( except
during their monthly course ) the hunters
at these informal hunts in which" they
follow the heberaa as jh&fehdda ( without
nets)- Tliey beat bushes witli their tSfhis,

WHien a hunting party return iiomc
unsuccesful, Uie Nsyn asks the Diguar
to bring him the hunting nets of each
family in the tan^d. When tlicy are
brought, he takes out a bit of thread from
each of the nets, makes up all the bits into
a small bundle, buries tlie bundle in the
ground and sits down by its side with
his face to the cast, and taking up some

liiter^UiniUi Association ■ S?

grains of rice in his hand goes on muttering
incantations, all the while fixing his gaze
intently on the rice in his hand ^tcr a
time he declares that he lias found on
which spirit or spirits are preventing success
in the cliase, takes out the bundle of thread
which he liad buried beside him and
exclaims“Here is the bundle winch these
spirits liavc secreted, Tliat is why no game
could be had. Now tliat I have taken ow
this impediment to the chase, it w
hencefortli be all right/' Then addre^ng
die spirits, he says,-"! shall sacofice fowls
to you. Don't offer obstructions any moiu.
From to-day may game be caught m plenty
in our nets/’ Saying this, he sacnBccs a
fowl by cutting its neck with a knife.
Besides the inter* asswiation for

purposes of tonti"8 ‘*’'=

^dy described. Ihu only olher cKca-

sionson which repicsenhillve men toms

number of “

weddings and pandanabi in which
of tribal rules, particularly wilh rega
sexual taboos, arc discussed and pumshe .

The Birhars.

Tlic Birhors have no tribal organization in the
sense of aji association of the different clans
of the entire tribe of which every member
or family is regarded as an unit Even
each separate clan making up the tribe
can hardly be said to have attained any
consolidation or to maintain a feeling of
solidarity. All the various scattered groups
or families of any particular clan never come
together as units in one clan oiganimtion.
Tlie mde bcgitining of such an amalga¬
mation may perhaps be seen in the practice
of members of the same clan of a parti¬
cular fwida inviting members of the same
clan who live within an easy distance from
tlicm to attend the periodical clan cere¬
monies in which sacrifices arc offered to
the clan deities known as Buru JSongae
* or Ora £o7igas.

CHAPTER IV.

Social System : Totemiam and Kinship
Organization.

The second form of social grouping
among the Birhors is concerned with
kinship and marriage. The fundamental
features in the marriage and kinship
organization of tlie Birhors, as of their
kinsmen and neighbours the Mundas and
the Santals, is the division of the tribe into
a number of exogamous clans called gotra^,
mostly named after some animal, p^t,
fmitp flower or other mnteml object ^
Birhors appear to have preserved or deve*
loped a few interesting features m their
totemism which I liave not yet met with
among any other totcmic tribe in Chobi
Nagpur, and which, so far as 1 know, Iwvc
not been recorded of any oUier tribe m

India. .

It is interesting to note that the ttnv

families that compose a Birhor or

The Birhors.

food-group do not all belong lo the same
dan or kinship-group. Chance or, more
often, marital connections ivouM appear to
Iiavc originally brought togetficr in a fanrfa
families belonging to different clans. And
tiirough long association in the food-quest,
families of different dans composing any
particular appear to liave attained a

comparatively greater cohesion than ditfe-
rent families of one and the same clan
belonging to differet Rut even tlus

cohesion is seldom so strong as to prevent
any family from leaving its old and

joining a new one, wlien it feels inclined
to do so.

The names of Blrhor clans or gotras that
I have hitlierto been able
Blrhor Clo&B’ to ascertain are the follo¬
wing :—

1. ^\ndi ( wild cat ).

2. Bonga Sauri ( a kind of wild grass ).

3. Bhat (name of a Hindu caste).

4. Bhont or Bhuntil ( a kite ).

5. Bhuiya (name of a tribe ).

6. Cliauli Hembrom (rice { Zfem-

betd-palm).

PIftte XIV.—Type of n BirliOr

yiHitli. dun).

Tot^tnic OrtJJS.

8 .

10 .
11 .
12 .
13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

Ganda Ganm (a large species of vul¬
ture ).

Geroa { a small bird }.

Gtdhi (i,*ulturfi).

Gqitt (tnilkman caste ).

Gulcria or Galaoria (pellet-bow ).
Gundri (a kind of bird).

Hembrom f betel-palm ).

Her^ Hembrom ( tiejv^ rice-husk J.

Induar (eel ).

Jegseria Lafha ( bfA<»=*a cake made
of mohuct flowers ).

Kaucli or Horo (tortoise),

18.

19.

20 .

21 .

22 .

23.

24.

25.

26 .

Kawan Hembrom.

Kconduar (a kind of fruit).

Khangar ( name of a sub-tribe of the

Mundas).

Kharca (name of a tribe [KlianaJ ?}
Khudi Hembrom ( iAiidf=broken

^ins of rice).
ludamba (a kind of flower /.
flindi j'af (- f^akur cliata ).
mpung (ijiyrohalan ) [called
Fier‘T£W In Hindi ].

.laghaia Hembrom C J/a^ftoi^ -hclon-

The, Birkors.

ging to Magha or Bihar }.

27. Mahali ( name of a tribe ).

28. Modi ( name of a caste or section of a
tribe).

29. Murum ( nilg^ or Portax pietu ),

30. Nag ( Cobia ) or Nagpuria ( bdonging
to [Chota] Nagpur J.

31. Sada ( white).

32. Samduar i sodom » horse ).

33. TlSii'inria (a kind of wild grass).

34. Sham-jbakos ( a composition used m
whetting weapons ),

35. Singpuria ( singhara fruit or Trapa
hispinosa ).

36. Suia C a kind of bird ).

37. Toriar ( belonging to Pargana Tori in
the Palamau district),

A few of these names, such as Nagpuria
and Toriar, are derived from names of
localities, whereas a few others, such as
Bhat, Goar, Bhuiya, Kliangar and hfahaJi
would appear to be derived from names of
other tribes, witli some of whom at any

Individual Totctfis.

rate there are reasoas to bciic^'c there have

been miscegenation in the past.

Iadivl 4 aal Totens, »tc-

rjnsLT"""

lave no individual or personal totc^,
nrooerly so called, they have a pec^tar
belief of a somewhat analog
\V 1 icn a Birhor dreams of some bi d, b^,
uonti, repUle, or other thing m the mg
and the following

r .=nTne friend or relative^ be at once

deludes ttat .he objee. ^
tether it be a enehe or ei> >nt«

, row or some other thiny, roust be the
ratTllte 'dromon' or ‘genius') of his
But 1 have not come across any
Cf to ancestor of a B'lrhor dan acgninng

I'ThiJi Iwi '• irO

tight Liw Kbb «id Slnw.

hkbai. N-gpurm. tgWoh

TbavuTLotyrt mrt yitU

u« pnjh.bly i»y

obvlciiJy tb® “ itJMdT

(V ?.»««•»•>

94 The Birhors.

his totem as his guardian-spirit in a vision
or a dream.

Totna

The members of a clan do not wear any
badge or distinguishing emblem or peculiar
dress, nor make up their liair in any distinc¬
tive fashion, nor get representations of their
totem cut or tattooed on their persons or
carved or painted on their houses or on any
personal belongings. But, as we shall see
later on, during sacrifices to the spirits
known variously as VrU-bUngas* ( Home-
gods’ ), Bum hoTigas ( Hill-gods) or 'Khunt-
bhuts* ( Clan spirits ) some emblem of ttic
family totem is placed by the side of the
sacriiicer and this emblem is always carried
about with it wherever the family
migrates,

Trftditio&al Origin of Particttlax Totosis.

The few legends tliat the Birhors tell
about the origin of some of tlicir clans do
not point to any belief in the descent of
men from their totems. All that they indi-

Pluto XV.—Tjpo "f » '*1''''“^
j„„»g....... (L'ir"ir

Traditional Origin of Totcnis, 95

cate is that the totem piani or animal had
had some accidental connection witli the
birth of the reputed ancestor of the clan.
Thus, tlie ancestor of the Gidhi t vulture)
clan, it is said, was boro under a wide-
spreading tree, and, as soon as he was born,
the egg of a vulture which had its nest
on the overlianging branches of the tree
dropped down on the babe’s head from
the nest. Hence the baby and his desceu'
dants came to form the Gidhi clan. Sinu-
larly, the ancestor of tlve Gcroa clan is said
to fiave been bom under the wings of a
Gcroa bird, and the ancestor of the Lupimg
clan under the shade of a Iwpnng tree. The
first ancestor of the Siism-jhnloa clan, it is
said, was horn at a place where people were
getting their weapons sharpened. The
ancestor of the Khangar clan was bom
when his mother was pressing oil, and that
of the Mahali clan when his mother was
plaiting a winnowing basket. The occupa¬
tion of the Mahali tribe, it may be noted.

is basket-making, and the Khangar Mundas

arc reputed as good oil-presscra. The

Tfie Birkors.

Mahali ckn of Uic Birhors would appear
to liave oiiginated from a cross between a
Birhor and a Mal^ali as the Khangar clan
woiild appear to liave originated In a cross
between a KJnmgar Munda and a Birhor,
The ancestor of the Bhuiya clan is, however,
said to have purcliased a brass bell from a
man of the Bhuiya tribe, and thus obtained
the clan name. The Chauli Hembrora clan
is said to have been the original clan of the
Birhors, and the ancestor of this dan, it is
said, rose up from under tJie ground with
rice (chduJi) on his head. Families of the
Chauli Hembrom clan carry wtli them, in
all their wanderings, one or more natural
stones called Mahdeo stones believed to have
risen from under ground even as their own
first ancestor did, and should they iiappen to
settle dowm for a time at any place, they
put up these stones to the west of tlicir
settlement and there offer sacrifices to tliem.
Men of the Hembrom clan are belived to
have uniform success in the chase and
always better luck in hunting than the
members of other clans. Of the Murilm

Rescwblaita ihdr Ttftewis. 97

dan it is said that when their tot

>vas bom, a MOrun. (nilgai or
came and stood by its side, and ioiUnwth
the baby jumped up and monn^ the am-
mat which rode awayvwth it through t
woods onmtho babe's head-dress was™.

eht in ae% (■fintiWniinronJens; creejrer
td the babe dismounted to cut down the
creepers. Since then, it is said. e/Udi-ganier-
ing Zi rope-makbig Iwve become the
principal occupation of the Bnliors.

legends like these obviously expost

facto ox secondary explanations.

But although the Birbors of our days do
not believe in tlie actual descent of a
clan from its totem, they

BMombUtiflflof appear to find some rcsem*

Men to their bjjmce in the temperament
TotonSe physical appea¬

rance of the members of a clan to that
of their totem animal or plan. Thus,
it is said, people of the Gidh. < vulture)
clan liave usually UlUo hair on the ^vn
of the head ; the gotra men have

The Birhon,

bald forehead j members of the Lupung
clan arc generally short but plump like the
lupinff fruit j the Ludamba gotra as well
fwthe Mahali gotm people are short and
lean; members of the HSra Hemfarom
clan are thin and short; tJie Chauli Hem-
brom men often have matted hair j people
of the Geroa clan, it is said, have generally
no nails on their toes and their teeth decay
prematurely j the people of the ( jegseria )
LutliS clan are said to be generally tall and
the hair on the sides of their head arc said
to fall off at an early age ; people of llie
Murum clan, who are said to be generally
of medium height, and those of tJic Bhuijsv
clan, who are said to be generally tall in
stature, are both irascible in their tempera¬
ment j people of the Sham-jhakoa cbm
are said to be generaUy tall and tJiin,
and people of the fChangar clan are said
to walk tt-ith an inward bend in their legs.

It need liardly be said that these fancied
resemblances to tlieir totem are more often
than not discredited by facts.

As ^vith other totcmic peoples, a BirfiSy

Piute XVI.—Type of « BirliOr
joimg iiinn. (Bluiivu cUti).

Totm Taboos.

must abstain from killing, destroying*
maiming, hunting, injuring,
Totm Taboo#' eating or otherwise using
the animal, plant or other

object that forma his clan totem, or a^ny
tiling made out of or obtained from it;
and. if posible. he will also prevent others
from doing so in his presence. Some of
the clans carry the principle to curious
extremes. Thus, the men of the Munm

clan cover their eyes when they chance to

come across a stag. Birhors of he

Bitinoflr clan abstain from cleansing the
hair of their head with oiheakes,
oil-prcssing was the occupation of their
KJi ngnr ancestor.

It is worthy of note, however, that all
toten, taboos Itavo to be .trietly obsererf
oaly by roamed men, lor it is not “Obl he

iaroanied lltat a “ «

nome a Ml member of his elan. E g.
killing, or destroying one’s elan totem »
regarded by the iSiWior « eqroralent to
kLg a human member ot bis oem clam
and the reason usually assigns y

ioa The Birhcrs.

Birhuy for abstaining from, or preventing
others from killing or destroying his totem
is tliat if the totem animal, plant, or other
object diminishes, the clan tcx> ndU suffer a
corresponding decrease in number. Al¬
though it is believed that a particular clan
will multiply in proportion as the totem
species or class multiplies, no BtThof clan
resorts to any magical process, like the
Australian /nticAtuma ceremonies, for the
innltipUcalion of its totem species or class.
Individuals of the tribe not belonging to
a certain totem do not hold those who do
responsible for the ensuring of a supply
of the totemic animal or plant for their
benefit, nor are the former required to obtain
the permission of the latter to cat their
totemic animal or plant. Marriage between
persons of the same clan is considered
incestuous.

Descent is reckoned in the male line and
a man has the same totem as his father.
The mothers, or rather the mother's
father’s totem is not respected; for, in
fact, a female is not supposed to have

ToUm Taboos.

any clan ; slie is not a recognized memlKr
either of her father’s or of her husbands
dan, and has not, therefore, to obsew
the taboos relating to their totems. She
must not, however, kill the totem amma
or destroy the totem plant of her hi^*
band’s clan, as that would, m the
estimation, be equivalent to ^jlmS
husband himsdf. When a
warily happens to cat, ki ^ or _ ^

his totem animal or plant, tos clan-fellou'S
impose on him, according to his m^,
a fine of cither five tfciir-anna Int,

or five two^anna bits, or annas. He

also required to provide a feast, it ^t

all the members, at least to one member d

each clan in his settlement or

The spirits of the dead arc not supposed

enter their totem animals nor are the jnts

of a dead totem supposed to ent

wombs of the wives of men d

A meeting d the totem

dered save among the Afjtnf * ^ “

one's ’luck; nor does a

sance (ooloa^) to his totem ammal ^hen

The Birkon,

he meets tt. But should he ever happen to
come across the carcase of his totem beast
or bird, he must anoint its forehead xdth oil
and vermilion, although he has not actually
to mourn for the dead animat or bury it.

practice connected
with ‘BirJiOF totemism wJiich, even if it

rnay not have an essen-
TeSSSu religious or magico-

Blriop Belijioa. religious significance, is at
any rate intimately associ*
ated with BirBr religion. Every BirhSr
clan has a tradition of its ancient settlement
having been located in some hill or other
within Chota Nagpur. And once a year
at every Birhor encampment or settlement
the men of eacJi clan assemble on some
open space outside their group of leaf^huts
to oflfer sacrifices to the presiding spirit of
their ancestral hill. This spirit is caUed
Ora-iwi^' or ‘home-god' by the migratory
( t/thlu) BvrJwrs and 'Buru-b^^gg or

comparatively

xtUed (J^hi) Birhofs, At these sacri¬
fices, m which mcrabere of other clans

PJiite xvn.— Tjrpe of n Birlior
young luftii. (Muriiijj dnu).

Association oj Toktmsm 'wiUt Religion.

may not take part^ the eldest ihember
present of the clan ofliciates as sacrificer.
A mystic diagram with four compartments
is drawn on the ground with rice*flour^
and in one of these compartments the
sacrificer sits down with his face turned
in the direction of tlie ancestral hill of his
clan and with some emblem of his totem
species placed in another compartment of
the diagram> Thus men of the
clan place a LudUniha Hower before the
sacrificer j those of tlie Muriim clan place
a bit of a horn, or skin of the m«r«m
(nllgsiji those of the KendviM clan place
a twig of the Keond (Diospyrws n\cla-
juxryfonJ tree ; those of the GerSa dan
place a wing of the perod bird ; those of
the dan place bit of the skin of

the ( wild cat); those of the Chduli

ifcmfirom clan place a liandful of iJruj
rice and also a hive of the terom fly;
those of the Jlumlrom clan place a

little rice-husk ; those of the Kt^ndi Ueni-
hrom clan place some broken grains
of rice; those of the place

Thi Birhors.

a Murt made of lac and sand which is
used in whetting weapons; those of tJic
ji^utirtVa clan place a handful of adunrt
or wild grass; those of the (Jegn^&}
Luthu clan place a l9th^ or round cake
made of the corolla of the fnokvA flower
and rice; those ofj the Singpurin dan
place either a leaf or a stem of the
5t«yAdjd (Trapa .Mhose of the

Gidlii clan place a claw or wing or featlier
of the gidhi or vulture; those of the
ifarani clan place a bit (of the horn or
skin of the stag; those of the JefAsma
clan place sonic flower W'hich blooms in
the month of Mh ( May^Junc) and the
sacrificer also sticks some of this flower
in Ills ears; those of the G^derin clan place
a tpder ( or bow used in shooh'ng day balls
at birds); those of the Tirio clan place a
iirio or flute; those of the Khongdr clan
place an oil-cakc ; those of the Msimli clan
place a small new or ivinnowing

basket; those of the Bh^ya dan place a
brass bell; those of the BJtQt clan place
a new winnowing basket with a new earthen

Plate XVni.—Type of a luiildle
Aj^ecl liji'li54‘ clrtn)-

AsiociaHon of Tot£mism ari/A Reltgiott.

vessel on it and 3- fire in a small
bundle of Umi (or kind of wild grass),
Men of the Sad» or white clan sacrifice
to their Svt&-bong9 with white clothes on ;
they do not use red lead in thdr
nor do dicy ever use tuimeric in any shape
in their food, nor dye their clothes with
turmeric as other clans do at weddings,
nor allow anyone wearing coloured clothes
to enter their dding or inner room where
the ancestor-spuits are supposed to reside.

In tlie case of bird or beast totems, the
skin, horn, claw or wing used as an emblem
to represent the clan at the is obtained
by membera of the cliui not by killing or
destroying the bird or beast with tltek own
Iiands but through men of some other
clan to whom they are not taboo. And the
horn or claw or skin or wing, once secured,
is carefully preserved in the 'spirit basket’
for use at the as often as may be

rer^uired. So intimate and vital is the
connection between the clan and its totem,
that the totem emblem thus used at the
pajos is regarded as representing the clah

Tht Birhon.

as a whole. And the invocation at such
be gin s thus :—'Behold such-and-such
( names } a clan has come to offer sacriSces
to thee, O spirit of such-and-such Hill
( names)’.

Although the men’" of every Birhon clan
annually offer saciifices to the presiding
spirit of their ancestral hill,
so great is their fear of die
spirit that no member of a
Birhif clan will, on any account, enter
or even go within a distance of a mile or two
of the tiill or jungle reputed to be its
former home, unless some family of the
clan is still residing there and regularly propi¬
tiating the local spirits. Even when, in the
course of their wanderings, a group of FfWi*
Birhafs happen to come near such hill or
jungle, they must turn aside and take a
different route. The reason now assigned
for such avoidance is that the spirits of
such a hill or jungle who have not had
any sacrifices offered to them since the
men had left the place might cause them
harm for such neglect As for Jaghi

Traditional Hotnts of iiu difcrcfl/ C/a>is. 107

Birhirs, they no longer observe this taboo
as to entry in their ancestral )tmgk or HiU
(burtif but still they will on no ^cconn

Ipend more than one night at a tunc m

Xiaditloaal home at Gosd-Chawtgara,
Chauli Hembrom cUn
Diffonn TUahja, the Bhmya

ckui at Durnardm, tlie Heff Sembrom

near Ramgarh ; the HaghSia

C/mfaft» n<»r the source of the ^

the Gldhi cbm ne^r OfiJn, tlm

dan at , the ?

Bdsagra ; the MMi dan at .

cbn at Naming NeTAT0,^\ ■ m

bogh district The danjiad Imir o

home near Duan;; the XSdambj.

FaiH Xafi.* the Nagpartd
GAorTKiber®; tlie 5®uHd clan at
Jlf*ritnidan near raimarflithc Gfe c
at Toiiba Didnii: the KMngar clan near
lirnghaiu and Takra; Uic Soda clan near

fh BifUan,

Sosa; the Bh^ clan near Pifhona; the
K&idvM cian near OtMidnd^t — ^a]I in the
Ranchi district The Shatn’jhahia ctan had
their fonner home It is

obvious, however that these old homes of the
difierent dans were not their absolutdy first
homes.

The situation of these traditional homes
of a few of the clans is believed to have
endowed them with specific
^SPpbwS“S' magical powers. Thus, the

Oortaitt Olua Befi Bernbrim and the
Khvdi Bembroni dans arc
said to have powers over the weather. It is
said that when high wind is a^tproachlng}. if
a man of either of these dans pours a jug of
water on the thhSn (spirihseat) or in front of
the tribal encampment and bids the storm
turn aside, the storm will immediately
take a difierent direction, and even though
it may blow liard on the country all around,
the lull or jungle in which these dans may
be encamping will remain quite calm and
undisturbed. The reason why tlic men of
these dans are said to be the or

I’lale XlX.—Tyjw of a midille'
aged UirbSc (-Aodi clau),

Supposed Magkat Powers of Certain Clans. 109

masters of the storm is explained by saying
that their *BuHi-Ungas* (mountain-gods)
or Or^-hongas' ( home-gods ) are situate to
ilie nortli, which is the home of storms.
Members of the Jegseria LiStha clan, whose
ancestral home and * home-god* (O^'bonga)
are further north than those of the
Henthr&n and Khidi Hembrom clans, are
credited with the power of controlling
rnonsoon rains and high winds in the same
way. But with regard to this clan, it is
also said the their special power over mon¬
soon winds and rains is derived from tlie
spirit known as ^Bhir Dhir PSadui ’

who is the guardian of the monsoon rains
and wlio is specially propitiated by the men
of ttiis clan at their thhans or spirit-seats.
It is said that monsoon winds and rains
will always abate their force when they
aproach a settlement of this clan. Of tlie
Kamn clan—one of the wildest of Birhor

“PaiicIh) Piunma" iippoui to tea eomiptioo nt the
•‘i'nuclkA PMidaTiw'' { the Sto wot of Paialu ) d
MAhnliliuniA fftine, htit {i rotruely epwlioii of hy tlie
Birlton 4ti tt siiLglB epdtiC

HO Th£ Birhors.

clans—it is said that tigers on certain occa¬
sions serve tliem as friends and scr\'ants.
When a woman is about to be

confined, her husband makes for her a
separate shed with Icai^es and branches in
wliich she Is left alone. As soon as a baby
is bora to her, a tiger, it is said, invariably
enters the shed, cleanses the limbs of the
baby by ticking them, and opens a back¬
door to tltc shed for the woman to go out
and come in during her days of ceremonial
taboo.

In such matters as food-taboos, festivals,

sacrifices and the like, there are differences

„„ . in the dififemt clans. Thus,

IHfforencos is. .. ,

Cuatoma batwaon NOf^na

tin 0Uiis, clan offer an ox; tlrose of
the Kh^gar, Andi^ and
ShitmJIiaHi clans offer a goat; those of the
Lidiimha clan offer two goats ; those of
the Mfiriim clan offer one chicken and one
goat; the Heft ffenihrotn^ Chauli Hembramt
Khii/K Heni&rvm, MaghSiS lirmlrSm, the
Bhiiyat the MahaH and the Ssda clans each
offer two chickens to their respective Ora-

Diffirenc^ in Ot&tonts beiuieen the dans, lit

boTiga or Buru-Mn^a or KbSnt-bhui, The
headman of the Lidltmbs clan while ofiering
sacrifices to his Burfl-bungi wears the
BT^maiiiotU sacred thread, as the
Zfuru hill which is their reputed ancestral
hilt is supposed to be a ^Brahman bhut' or
Brahman, spirit.

As regards festi^'als, the SarAiZ appears
to have been adopted from their noii-i?» ASr
neighbours by the Sham-jhakoo^

Gerda, Bonga-saufi, BhsngitTj Audit

and Soda clans ; the Karani festival
by the Sham~jhl^6at Murum, LathSr CkOuH
‘ Hembrom, NOffpiiria^ Mohali and Gidbi
clans ; tJie Sohorai festival by the Bhviya,
Andi, ^/urvm, Shom-jhaktia, Khang&r and
Gerda clans { and the Mahadeo (chafok)
pij/o festival in Chait ( March-Apnl } by the
different subdivisions of the HembrSm dan,
and by the HAuiyo, Lupwi^t Lafhat Sing^
pitria, JtgseriUt Nogpuriot Maghuia, Gidhit
AaiPtin, Gvleria, Jeftmria and Tofi<3^
clans. The Aitia festival is observed by
the Andi dan and tJie Daaai festival by
the Ilenibrvm clan. The Saed-ldnga, the

lit

The Birftors,

Kharihftn p^a (En piifia}^ the sowing
festival (Her puna) and the Nawa-jom
( eating the new rice ) festival are in vogue
only among the landed (J^hi) Birhor-t
who appear to liave adopted them from the
Mwtdas.

j^lthough the Natm-jorn {eating the
first rice ) ceremony is not observed by all
the clans, they all agree in abstaining from
eating the corolla of the mo4un (Bttaiia
Jati/oiia) until the first-fruits are offered to
tJie ancestcr-spirits (hsprom). Those clans
that observ'e the Sarhwi festival do not eat
food from plates or cups rnadc of new Sa]
leaves until the S(xrhvl ceremony is over.
The Bhntya and LUpimg clans as well as
most of the Uthla ( migratory ) clans abstain
from eating tuaiigoes or eating from plates
or cups made of leaves of the hew* (Eie»s
Indica) tree uiitili the Pipe* of Maltadeo
has been celebrated on the last day of Chait,

Although all the Birhof clans agree in
excluding females (wHli Uie exception of
little girls who have not yet attained
puberty) from their spirit-huts (btinga^

Platu XTX.—Tvjie of an oI.1
Birhur womati.

Difftrenc^ *« Cti$i£im btbam ih^ C/<i»r5-

ofwj and in excluding married daughters
and other women not belonging to the
family from their spirit'Seats (ihhikt^)* and
in prohibiting women from eating tlic heads
of animals caught in the chase or saOTficed
to the spirits, difierent dans observe difierent
rules about the ceremonial pollution
attaching to females during menstruation
or in child-birtii. Thus, among the
Maghdw Hembrom clan, as soon as a
woman menstruates a small new door
is opened in the wall of the hut for hw
use during the next eight days, and
she is not allowed to use the main door
of the hut or to touch any fond or other
thing in the bouse or do any work, whereas
in most other clans although she is not
allowed to touch anything in tire house,
a new door is not opened for her. Iq ad¬
dition to these restrictions, a menstruous
woman of the KamJi clan must, go out of,
and enter, the hut through the newly-
opened door-\ray in a sitting posture—that
is to say, on her buttocks and not on her
legs, S

224

The Birhors.

In addition to the general rule that a mar'
ried woman may not enter tiie spirit-huts
and spirit-seats of her father's settlement
some clans have sptjcial restrictions. Among
the Kawan and Maghaia Bembr^ clans,
a married daughter is not allowed to enter
her father s liouse at all j when she comes
to her father’s settlement on a visit, she
sleeps in the maidens' dormitory and eats
in the angan or open space in front of her
fathers hut. The daughter of a man of the
Bhiaya clan, after she has worn shell
bracelets known as 'shaniha\ may not enter
the *ading’ or inner room of her father's
hut where the ancestor-spirits are supposed
to reside, A parturient Biffiof woman
except in the dndi and a few other clans
has a new doorway made to her confine¬
ment room*-® and for a certain number of
days after delivery, during which her touch
is taboo to others, she must use this new
door only ; but the number of days varies

TUi* pnictim of Dpening m nuw door to tlio tying-fg
iwjni for tha «ae of tho paituricat woinnii tg ntso
found <Liii«ie«t Uio Kluirtwi of tijfl KmicW diitricL

DiS^rettc& in Cttsioms between the Clam. 115

in different clans. Thus in the Liidsmbs
clan the woraan is allowed to use the old
door after seven days from the day of
delivery, in most other clans after twenty-
one days, and in the Maghaia Hembrom
clan after five weeks if the new-born baby
is a female and after six weeks if it is a
tnale. In most clans again, but not in all,
long wooden fences are put up on both sides
of the pathway leading to this new door,
so that Uie womair's dangerous shadow
may not fall on other people.

In the presence of so many points of
difference in custom between tlic different
clans, it is no wonder that a Sirhof should
identify ‘clan’ with *jai’ or caste, and that
there is as yet liardiy any real tribal senti¬
ment or any cohesion between the members
of the different clans. But inasmuchas
members of two or three clans generally
form one food-group camping together in
the same or settlement or wandering

about and hunting in the same Jun^c, there
has sprung up a well-recognued connection
of some particular clan vrith certain other

The Birhon.

clan or clans- Thus, for instance, the O^os
and Minim dans are generally found
associated together; the Sa^fia dan is
usually found associated with the Lud^hd
clan; the Hefa Hemhnhn with either the
Gidbi or the -Bliwjya clan ; the ChaitH Hem-
Irom will either theiVigrpunffor the MidtMi
or the Maghnid Hemlrom dan * the Sing-
puria wth the Nsgpurid clan ; and the
Lsf^hs Jethsend with the Lvpvng clan*
Although the BirhSrs assert that these
associations of particular clans have existed
from the beginning of time, there are reasons
for supposing that such association orip-
nated from sons-in’law or other near
relations by marriage Joining the groups of
their fathers-in-law or other relations
on the wife’s side. An examination of the
genealogy of the different families of a
fdndd shows that the two or more dans
composing it have intermarried either in
the present or in some past generation.

There is, as I have said, hardly any social
integration between the different dans for-
ining tlte tribe. Hven the different famifes

Plate XX . —^Type of a BirliCr woman
carrying her child.

Dt^eretJces in Custom between the Clans, 117

the same chui living at a distance from one
another do not recoguae tlie idea of coUec
tivc responsibility as illustrated, e. g-, by
the law of the blood-feud, but only, and tliat
dimly, tire existence of an ultimate relation-
ship* It is only in the families composing
one settlement or encampment, although
generally belonging to more than one clan,
that we meet with a certain amount of social
solidarity. Even the birth-pollution and
death-pollution of any family in tlie local
settlement is shared by all the other families
of the settlement to whatever clan they
may belong. Although tlieir ancestral-spirits
(fidprom) and home-spirits (biru-b^ss or
bingoa or khkni’hh^s) are different, they
join in sacrifices to the same local spirits
and the same spirits of the hunt.

Although a few clans, as we have seen,
arc supposed to liavc a magical control over
certain departments of natnre, such power
is now* said to belong to them not directly
on accunt of their totem, but on account of
the situation of their traditional homes.
There is no specialiaation of function among

218

The Birkots.

the different clans which are considered
as equal in rank. Membeis of one clan
do not, however, take cooked rice from
those of another clan belonging to a diffe¬
rent randdi unless some relationship, direct
or indirect, can be traced between the two
cl^s, or behveen one of the clans and some
third clan with whom the other clan is
directly or indirectly related. This is parti¬
cularly noteworthy, inasmuch as a Mrh^r
has no objection to eating cooked rice and
dnnking water at the hands of Mundas,
Santsis, Bhui^Ss, Chaona and almost all
other tribes and castes with the exception
only of some particular communities, such
ss Chsmsrs, Ghana, Dorns, Ldhars, Oreas,
^ahalis, Panrs and Tontia. whom they
consider as ‘low castes/ Their objection
to taking cooked food from Muhammadans
iS apparently due to Hindu influence. It
may be further noted tliat children bom
of an union of a ^iVAa.i- woman with a man
of another tribe or caste at whose hands a
^ii-Wfliasno objection to eat cooked rice
or drink ivatcr, may be admitted to the

in Citstoww b&Uaecn the Claits, 119

full tribal rights of a Birhor, provided they
live as Birhors in a Birhaf tundSt follow
their traditioDal occupation of rope-iuaking
and hunting and marry Birher women. It
is from such unions that a few of the clans,
such as the Mohali, the BkHiyn, the
the Khsngar, the Gerds and the Sham-
jh^ns are said to have ori^nated.

Such are the main features of Birhor
totemism so far as I have hitherto been able
to ascertain ibem. As with most other
l3ravidian tribes in CAstS the Bir

hor totemic clan Is exogainous and the
system of relationship is dassificatoiy. The
respect which a man owes to Ms totem
prevents him from kUling and eating it.
But the respect for the totem does not
appear to have developed into an actual
worship of the totem animal or plant. The
Birhor has not come to regard his totem
as a god but looks upon it more in the
light of a fcUow-clansnian. AlUiough the
BirhZf idenUfies himself and Iris fellow-
clansmen with Ms totem, he does not, like
certain Central Australian Blacks, occa-

^20 The Birhon,

» 0 ]i^[y kill and cat his totenn for a more
complete phsrsical idenfificatiori with it
Nor does a 5tVAof clan breed or fame its
totemic animal.

One peculiar feafiu-e of BirkSr totemism
that I have noticed is the belief in the
magical power of certain dans over wind
and rain. But the tribe is not at tiic
present day, at any rate, organized, like
the Amnta, as a *'co-operative supply asso¬
ciation, composed of groups of magicians,
each group chained with the management
of particular departments of nature”.

The totemism of the Birhofu would
appear, however, to have not been without
its influence on the growth of thoir religion.
The most notcwortJiy feature in Birhof
totemism appears to me to be the belief in
the vital connection between the human
dan, their totem, the hill which is reputed
to have been their original home or ratlicr
the spirit of such hill.

Although the Birhdf cannot actually
define the nature of his relation to his totem,
and has indeed no definite conception

i» Cuslottis between ihe Ctaiis^ 12i

of it, some of hia beliefs and practices in
connection with his totem would seem to
indicate that it is to him something more
tlian a mere nanie to designate his clan.
But what that something may be it is estre-
mcly difficult to determine* The paramount
importance which the SiThvj" attaches to
his clan-spirit known as the Bvrii-bdnga or
Hill-god (the spirit of hts anccstml IuH )
which is regarded somewhat in the light of
a guardian-spirit of the clan, and the protni*
nent place assigned in rfan-sacrifices to
the emblem of the ctan-tolcm (such as a
bit of the skin or hair or hom of the totem
animal or vwng or feather of the totem
bird) which each family carefully treasu^
up in its spirit-box fhonffS-pep*} and carries
about with it in its wanderings and sete
down over a mystic diagrain at clan sacri¬
fices to the may at first sight

suggest that the totem might in its origin
have been the guardian-spirit of the ances¬
tor of the clans acquired by him perhaps
in a vision as a Birhor spirit-doctor

or magician sometimes acquires lua lami*

122

The Birltors.

liar spirit or individual guardian spirit)
or in a dream ( as the rats or 'djjemon* of
a guest may appear in a dream to his host,
and as even the B&rvrhong^ of his own
plan at times appears to a BiThaf in a
dream), but the fact that the individual
guardian spirit or familiar of a BirMr
spirit-doctor is at least in these days, always
a personal (almost anthrompoorphic) spirit
and is never known to take the form of
an animal or reptile or bird or plant or
fruit or any other form w*hich tlie Birliof
totems generally take, and the further fact
that it is only a very insignificant proportion
of the JJtWwf population who arc
known to acquire tutelary or familiar spirits
through a dream or a vision, would
appear to mil Ma te against such a suppo-
sitiou. From the Birhofi behaviour towards
his totem and his customary mode of
speaking about it, one is inclined rather to
suppose that there may lurk at the
back of the BirkSfs mind a v^gue and
indefinite notion as to different totemic
principles or forces—corresponding to

DiprcttCiS in Cusbnts between the CUms. 123

analogous or related ‘forces'^ in difierent
parts of the cosmic would—^bcing immanent
in difierent hills and in the human clans
who arc tiaditionally believed to have
ori^nated there as well as in the fauna
and flora of such hills. The emblem of his
own totem which tlie Birhof places

reverently in a mystic diagram while sacri¬
ficing to his Siru-hBngU or clan-spirit may
not unreasonably be supposed to symbolise
this totemic principle conceived of as a
mystic force or 'mana' which is immanent
in liis clan and in the hill or jungle which
fonned the original home of his clan as v^ll
as in the species of animal or plant which
constitutes his totem and which might have
formed a prominent feature of his anecstr^
hill. Such a conception would be in
cosonance with the power-cult which ap¬
pears to be of the essence of the Bixhofs
religion. But 1 need Iiardly repeat that the
Birhor himself does not or cannot formulate
to himself any such clear conception, but
that his words and actions might not unrea¬
sonably be taken to point to the existence
of such sentiment and such a conception
in the inner consciousness of the tnbe.

CHAPTER V,

Kinship System.

Whatever may have been the Birhofs
migmal conoeptioii oE the totemic principle
and of his own relatiDii to his totenij—
Tvhetlier it has any relationship with the
Birhofi religion or stands wholly out¬
side,—the totemic clan is undoubte^y toe
central fact in the kinship organization
of the tribe- Between the tribe and the
totemic dan, the Birhof^ know no inter¬
mediate dud or other grouping of toe
clans into eiogamous pbratries of classes.
Totcmism, exogamy and father-right are
at present the three main factors of BirhoF
kinship orgaiiization. I>escent ia reckoned
in the male line, and marriage or sexual
intcTCGurse between persons of the same
totemic clan is forbidden.

Although clan-exogamy and the recog'
nihon of kinship tlirough klic father’s side

Kinship System.

alone, stiU primarily govern the kinship
and matrimonial organization o£ the tribe,
regard for certain consangomous relation^
ships with racmbers of other dans together
with the ‘classificatory’ system of reckoning
rdationship, has gradually introduced cer¬
tain additional restrictions to their simple
rules of marriage and kinship. And a BirUr
of one clan may no longer many any Md
every person of the opposite ses bdcsiging
to 3 different dan. But bow slight these
other restrictions based or consanguinity
arc may be gatliered from the fact that it
is even considered permissihle, though not
quite proper, for a son and a daughter of
the same mother, but not of the same
father, to marry after their mother is dead
and the only restriction to cross-TOUsin
marriage—marriage between the children
of a brother and a sister—is that the com¬
munity does not look with favour upon such
marriages during the life-time of eitlicr the

iDdtMDOQ -ffticb i iiTiifm

126

T/te BirAors,

brother or the sister. But even on this
point the tribal conscience is satisfied if the
contiacting parties each pay to the Paneb
the paltry consideration of one rupee and
four annas to make them regard the brother
and sister as legally dead. There is a com¬
mon BirAor sajfing "With one rupee and
a quarter the father's sister is made to
die." The same procedure is adopted
to validate the marriage of the children of
two sisters wlicn either or both of the
sisters are alive. Whettier cross-cousin
marriage be a modification of the system
of marriage with the widow of the mother's'
brother or not, a BirAsf' now looks upon
his mother's brother's wife in the same
light as a mother and may not take any
liberties with her either in speecli or
otherwise.

Clan-exogamy may indeed be said to be
practically tlie sole principle of matrimonial
eligibility amongst the BirAdi's, with only
one exception,—namely, the prohibition
against marriages between persons whom
society regards as standing to one another

Kinship Systan,

in the position of paxetit and child in the
'clas^catory’ sense. And as society regards
an cider brother and his younger brother's
idfe as standing to each other in the relation
of father and daughter, this rule includes
the prohibition against the nmniage of an
elder brother with the widow of his deceased
younger brother. A younger brother, how^
ever, has the first claim to the hand of his
deceased elder brotlier's widow ; and even
W’here he does net want to marry her, he
is entitled to the bride-price payable by
the man rvho takes her as his wife.

The kinship system of the Birhort is,
broadly speaking, of the kind known as
classificatory. The funda-
Ths cUflaifleft- mental feature of this
SSS*5SSf system is the applicaUon of
olfltttifr the same relationship term

in addressing most, though
not aUj persons of the same generation
and sex. Thus, every one whom the
father of a Birhof calls *d4dd' or elder bro¬
ther ( or cousin ) is his own
Ivis mother's 'tAoiiu*’/ and every one

128

Tltc Birltcrs,

whom bis father calk *bhsf or younger
brother {or cousin ) is his own *kakif
( fathers's younger brother) and his mother's
Hriul* ( husband's younger brother) and
every one whom his mother calls 'dodtf
or *hha^ is his own It may be

noticed, however, that the terminology
of BirMr kinship is no longer purely
classihcatory; for certain distictions, as
will be presently seen, are now made in
the terms used for near and distant relatives
of the same category. The following table
of BirhdT terms of relationship and mutual
address was obtained by means of genca*
logics. The terms 'brother' and 'sister' are
used in tlie tabic in a classiticatory sense
and includes cousins, however remote.

RELATIONSHIP TERMS.

Pettier

o/oj Apii drmMcd 0 Aba \
at

Miu? Ell Miw!

2lothor

Fathcr'i jaungci
brotUfif

Kakn £h K&ka t

Rdationship Tmns, t29

brotiiak^A wifi:* n

WLf# f<

A isw'i «ld^
brotJici^s wife, „

FfttWi elder hro-

tluBr ii

McktiicF* eUer
■iiter^ huftbuful, n

(A Wemaa'ji)
pimger ttlNter^e

HQIL n

Wife** jrounget
fll«ter^s scm, »

Wife'a younger
Biater^fl dugliter. ri

[ M wtsmui'e )
jouDger HsteFe
sdrn or dauglitor. n

( A tiieii’i ) yofuji^
gar broibor^i aou
ur d&iigbter- in

( A wotoMi'i )
huebitid^e youn¬
ger brotbe/A HQ
or daugbicr* n

K&kJ

BbfDibil

QmL

(Fstlier of
iiMmd-9a}

(Ifotlnr p<
BOUld-H)

HiU

Eh hill 1

Quugn

Eh Uimgu 1

■■

If-

130

The Birlfors,

yo^c^ brother'fl

( A wQtuftn'ri }

BOR «r fitEugliter
Fiitlifir'4 ijildcr
bruthet^^ wifa

flidm; imtmT
Wifo^s f&ilkcr
HiLiboud'i fntlLor
HujibuDil’*
brother,

tuothor'i brother.

Wlfo^n mother'A 1

brother, J

Wifu’fl older bmther

Wife'i Enotber.

Wifa*! EbJifr eiitor
(Wonwi'tf) eldor
Mitor'a UuJilifjiiH].

HiuTmud'a mother
Eluoband'n idder
Editor

fi¬

« r

Oongti nml

Ell Gtmgii

nuai

Gimgii m»S

HonjliAr

,11

Hoojhorlngl

ffpiijhar

BoU'

footjiddiT-

hoDjlior

»d).

Mamo^

MAmu boD-

hoiijli&r

jliniitijf 1

r Alomii-

r Mmnubcni-

[ bonjhir

. pmritig \

Btiobonjhj&r

Eb Bar-

HiLiihiLr ,

bonjhviti^ 1

£li go Hunh

hfiriDg 1

I4<

Aji fianor

Hacuir

Ajl-Lmuir

EhgD Aji

hnnoHiig I

’ RelaUonshipTertm.

A ooirilfl

„ S\nm .. t“ “hlw

co-wifo ii adilreMsd m ‘Wdi'

or *Dtti' anJ » yt«®SW eo-wiJa

^ •,

{i oalUid by tLoiun«fi«f h«

tAnd*)-

GrHLlrgrandFfttlior , |

Qmt-gmnd-miolo. J
Hldor brolhc^r u

Kldcr Hivtcir n

HiuibaDd'i li^er
lirolViQT^ wifo If

firoat-grwidinctbtHr |1

Gwt-graiidiuinfc; J
Wife** yomigflr
fiiitei-** hfubaud,

Pndft tf ^ ^

II ** "*

Oltli II Eh I>»di!

Cotni « "

■Dti „ EliDwl

SMiiu Bhiu „ EliSarhut

Eldfir nirtDT'*

lituhancl

Fatbet'i father ; 1

Tcyiutg

Aj*

EfttWi mide. J

Fnthar'fl oaotbec

Aj»

Motlier’H binotbcr -

Mamii

FiUilieT^* Autor'e

htubawl

Father'* rieU*

HaUkhi

MAther'i Ifrotb^r^i

wife

&ta|)iDi^ paDger

iftoiur

Mo«i

Tflryufkg-lWJ 1

Eh A]* !

Eh Aji t
Eti IkUmii!

«i

Ell if«Uni t

KU Uo*^'

Tke Birhors.

Moifaor'g

iMjer'j Luoboiui

m Uota

*1 Eh Moaa t

W Wa lOdm:

idaUu^a UB

t) Moan

Yi Eh MaB& J

Hmbafid i youngor 1 Ootaii

r (Mothior of

brothm*® frife. 1 1 - .

Mothflr’M ffttber

1 SDHUia^J,

{ nr ttbcb )

Nttna.

i« Eb liJuiA f

Modmir'i motha?

( DT munt )

H- 19^ Usui f

Soa'iwjfe'i Ifttbtf

Daughtet^g 1

biu^ul^A fftiliBr,

J M BamfUii:

tt S^mdlu bp I

Suii^i wlfe^i iud>, ^
thfff 1 Dati^l]-

biubtiiid'ft

motlieT.

tf Soindbln

H Rarndtiln lio 1

YoiLDgcjr bfaiJier

„ Ehai, or

„ Bhflj (or id-

dieimd hy

Yoiioger fantb^a

nuiiMja

i.Kimln, BbalScimjp

(thPtiddwaod),

TTiia J joungcr

brother

Sider aiatar'a

i,, Sm (addr^aaed by ci&ipe}

hiubuKl

p, Tejmng

H Tojia^liof

Elder brather’i 1

IWUrtw-l

lUugiiter /

fieti j

rt Eh Bod 1

DM^ter

pf Bolt, DTi.Kiidlioi]

11 r

ReiationsJtip Tcrttts.

Son

Hqptifc

Eh Beta!

brotlior'fl wp

Diwla mai

^hupcm

Bnibuid'ii oldtf

■BffPltwijppiisiii' '

^ PI

brothd'^ wo

h&pcrti

(Wcnun’t ^ ’

DlflifllEETHlU

^ PI

MiertrCir'fl mn ,

bopop ^

HiLabtiDd^N ycuEb

IllTll

Wo Bilim !

gtr’bnilihar

Dfiaghtor% hua^

Jawhi

J &imi go;

\mn^

Kh Wlnil

Sifftoi'fl i^ughtKrf^i

BhAgiii-

Eh Ehi'tgni-

J&wjii

Zb BabP [ )

A woiiimi*« tm>

tb^M mm

EbHgnA

Bhagn* 1

Yfnttig^r brotliGili^jB

dAiigHtcr

Bhejfnu

'll

Eh BllJiigpi 1

Wife’# hiotbei'x dmnghter Bh^i

Eh Bhcgni 1

HuAbftDd'a MUicr’i

djinghtor

i-i

Sirtct's iriFo

Bhegnft-

,*Kh go Bhvgrttt-

Wkiln

Umln 1

C3iilil's<)rnopiiciw'A

or niocv'i tm

Nnti

Eh S»ti t

CbDd'fl^ rw|*tDir'iiPr

niWi d*U|^tcr-

Katin

Eh Nathi I

134

The Bi^hott,

It may be noted that in addressing
female relatives the particle *gd' is some-
times tacked on to the term of address, and,
similarly in addressing male relatives the
expletive **/5’ is sometimes suffixed to the
letrn of address. Some of these terms
of address are also used in addressing
another, even unrelated, person of the
sex and and generation as the relative or
relatives to whom the tcmi of address is
appropriate. From the above list it will
be seen tliat the Birh^f applies the same
kinstup term ( e, g. ) in addressing a
number of relations of the same generation
and sex. Generally speaking, as I liavc
already pointed out, every one whom one's
father calls ‘dtidii' or elder brother is ^gingii'
to liimsclf and Aoiyfl#*' to his mother
and every one whom one's fatlier calls
or younger brother stands related as
to himself and Hnil' to Jhs mother, and
every one whom his motlicr calls ‘^bhaC is
'm^inu' to himself. Again, it will be noticed
that a Birhof uses the same term in addres¬
sing some relatives who sLind one degree

Cfitttd-parcnt and Crand’Ciiild,

higher as well as certain other relatives who
stand one degree lower than himself m
the pedigree. Thus, for instance, ones
father’s elder brother and moliier’s elder
sister's husband, are both called
so also are Ills younger brother s chili and
his wife's younger sister's child botlr called

The Birhof, it may be noticed, uses the
same kinship term (msmv) for his mother's
brother and his sister s
Bel&tio&s hotwBon husband, and similarly the
same term (Htom) is used
for the father's sister and
the mother’s brother's wife, and to tins day
cross-cousiQ marriage in which these two
relationships are combined in one and the
same person is not unknowTi m this tribe.
No jests and iokes are permitted widi one s
father's sister or mother's brother's wife,
who arc both regarded in the same light as
one's mother. On the other hand, jests and
jokes and certain inodes of speech sugges-
Live of conjugal familiarity arc freely use
between persons related to each other as

Ihi Birhgn.

gmid'parcnt and grand^cblld the clas*
siiicatory sense ) among the Birhofs^ as they
arc also freely used among Uic Or^jiaand
tlie Mutkos of CAofd N^puT ^ and improper
relations between such relatives arc
thought lightly of by sodcly. Jt may he
further noticed that sunilar jokes and jests
arc freely allowed between a man and his
elder brother’s wife, and great liberties are
permitted between these rcktives. And we
have seen that amongst the Birhors, a
widow s deceased husband's younger brother
lias the first choice of her hand in marrtage.
From these circumstances it may not be
unreasonable to bfer that familiar modes
of speech still in use between grand-parent
and grand-child are survivals of the
same ^cial regulation which Dr, fiivcrs
met witJi in the island of Pentecost and
Mt, Howitt amongst the Dierri of Australia
and which might at one time have been hi
vogue amongst the Birh^rs of Ckotd Ns^pun
As amongst most other tribes and
castes of Chota Nof^pur, the names of a
man s younger brother's wife and of

Kinsli^ Taboos.

gvwaTniy T^booB' his wilc'^s gldcr sister are
taboo to the Birhof and tlie
names of the husband's (ilder brother and of
a younger sister's husband and a younger
brother's wife are taboo to a Birhof woman.
Even words resembling in sound names of
such relatives may not be uttered. Thus,
if the name of a woman’s husband’s elder
brother is *BiidJi'i' she will not call a Wed¬
nesday by its proper name of 'Bidh,' but
in referring to a W^ednesday she will use
some such expressioiv as *the day after
Tuesday*. It is believed that the uttering
of such a tabooed name is sure to cause
sickness or other misfortune to the person
uttering the name or to some one of his or
her family. When a fiiVAof wants to say
something to his younger brother’s wife or
his wife’s elder sister he may not ordinarily
communicate directly with such relative,
but should communicate through somebody
dse such as his own wife; and sinJilarly
when a woman wants to say something to
her husband's elder brother or sister or her
younger sister's husband, she should, if

The BirkorS.

possible, coiranuEiicate through some third
person, If any direct communication be¬
comes absolutely necessary between such
relatives, they may talk wnthout going
close to each otlier and without looking
straight at eacJi other's face. They may
not sit on the same mat nor even tread
on each other's shadow. Besides these,
there appear to he no other restrictions
against conversation between a ma n or
a Woman and relatives of one's wife
or husband. For the Brst three or four
days after marriage a newly-married
bride does not talk much, and in tire
presence of her parents-in-Iaw speaks in a
low voice, A wife or a husband may not
address each otlier by name, but when
questioned by others, it is permissible to
mention the name of one’s husband or W'Lfe,
At the ear-boring ceremony of a Birhof

baby, tlie ts&hi relative

oFeortSfliS.

been named has to take
up the baby in his or lier arms and petfor*
ate its cars,

Kimhip Salutations.

At marriage, the sister's husband of the
bridegroom ( or bride) is required to pCT-
form certain functions which will be
described in the chapter on Marn*

age Customs”.

At the cremaUon of a deceased Hirtior n
is his youngest son who is required to put
lire to the mouth of tlic corpse, and tlien
only may other sons and relatives do so.
Three forms of salutations are in v^gue
tribe. These arc known
respectively as Jihar ,
ghat, and aalsm^Jura.
The johdr form of salu¬
tation is only extended to relatives, boUrmale
and female, who are regarded as supenora,
such as parents, uncles and aunts, parents-
in-law, grand parents, wife's elder sis ers,
and husband's elder brothers or elder sisters.
This form of salutation consist lu bowmg
down before the relative, resting the ore
head on the two fists placed side by side
on the ground. It is intercslmg,
ever, to note that this form of salutation
is employed by a man to his ann

amongst the

Kinship

Salat&tieas

140

Tiu BirlKt’i.

(motJier-ixi'law of Iiis son or daughter)
and not to ins samdhi ( father-in-law of his
son or daughter ). So ^so a woman wiU
salute Iicr tarndhin. in the Jdhar fonn.

The second form of salutation known as
hhet'ghai consists in clasping each other
in the arms and pressing each other by
the chest This salutation is in use between
snmdAis to whom sofam-nto/ura is atsn
made in addition to Ih&i-ghai,

The third form known as majura

is a geoenil salutation made to all
friends, relatives and tribe-fellows. It con¬
sists of holding forward the right hand
which touches tlie forehead with a crook
while the left hand is placed under the
riglit elbow.

The Birhof father lias absolute right over
his sons. In case the mother of Ills children

deserts liim, the father is
SviSflSrfS entitled to the custody of
tainl^tivM- bis sons, and the mother
is entitled to the custody
of Iter daughters. At the marriage of a
girl, her motlier receives two rupees from

Sucwssww

the bridegroom's people. This is supposed
to represent the price of the mother's milk.
Formerly the amount paid was one rupee,
but for the last twenty^five years or so the
amount has been raised to two rupees,
because *the mother has two breasts from
which the girl was suckled t'

During the lifetiine of a iJir^r father,
his sons may demand a partition o
the family property, only
after all the sons Jmve been
married. In the event
of a partition, the father
will keep a share (usually less than that of
of a son) for hUnself and divide the rest
among his sons. The eldest son gets the
largest sliare and each of the younger
sons gets a sliare slightly larger tlian
tliat of his next brother. Wliere a it^
has two wives, the sons of the elder
wife receive a larger share than those
of the younger wife. There is, ow-
ever, as yet no fixed proportion ac*
cording to which the property is divided.

On the death of the father, the son«

SttOQtasimi «&&
IslxerituM-—
faitltl«n.

142

The Birhon.

divide the property according to the same
principles. Daughters are not entitled to
share the father's property with their
brothers. But if a man has no sons, liis
or son-indaiv living with his
wife’s parents as a member of tlie family, or,
in the absence of his daughters

arc entitled to Ms property, provided they
bear the funeral expenses. In tlie absence
of children or a the nearest

agnates of the deceased inherit, faking per
stirpes and not per capita. Failing a near
agnate, men of the same sept living in the
f^iidQ will take the property per stirpes on
their bearing the funeral expenses.

CHAPTER VI.
Marriage Customs.

As marriage is regulated on basis of
relationship, an account of Btrh&T marriage
customs appropriately follows tlie accoun

of their Wnship system.

Marriage is considered indispensable for
every Birhor. Even most of their spints
or deities are believed to have each a
husband or a wife, as die case may be. It is
only after a person enters the mamed ^tc,
that he or she is regarded ns a full fledge

member of the tribe. r t -

Although instances occur In a few Jag^

{ settled ) families of a girl being mamed
as early as in her eleventli or twelfth year
and a boy in his sixteenth or seventeenth
year, adult marriage Is the rule ^ong aU
Birh&r^. A boy is generally married when
he is about twenty or twenty*onc years old
and a girl when she is about sixteen or

144

The Bifhors.

seventeen. In a regufar marriage (Sadar
Siipta), it is the parents of tlie bride and
bridegroom who select a partner for their
boy or girl and conduct all negotiations
for the marriage. But there are other forms
of marriage in which one or both of the
parties choose for themselves.

(i>—D ifferent ktnes of Marriage,

The £trAors recogniac at least ten diffe¬
rent forms of union as constituting valid

marriage. Wlien a young
man and a maiden are
discovered to have been

Nam-napoffl

Sflipla-

carrying on an intrigue, if t hey have proceed
too far to be dissuaded, the elders of the
fsn^d fonnaJly make over the girl to the
keeping of her lover, and, when the latter
or her parents are able to collect the
necessary expenses, the customary bride-
price IS paid to the bride's jxirents;
rebtives and fellow-fA^id^pcoplc arc in¬
vited ; rtt-milicn is applied as in b regular
marriage, and the usual marriage-feast t is

Plate XXI.—A HJlrhiJi ytuitig ctiuple-
The tnnu i» carrying tii}>d (oil*estrae-
tors) niQile "f

145

Udra-ttdri Bapla-

provided. This is known as the

pam hapm. Tim is more preval^t among

Uie UfhliiB Uian among the Jsgh^* ^

The Udra^dri bapla is a purely clope^

ipent marriage. A young man a ^
form an attachment for
ndtauiil each other, and, apprehen^
opposition to their

'«n -locreUv leave the village togcUicr

reman in hiding ®

(or eome lime. SubamuenUy, when

orefn«nd»at.lhe,nre bronght h^e. ««

costomnry bride-priee m

oDoUed. .md n (cast is pronded to rclahves

™d he fda^n people to validate the marrraBe.

^-n'or a widow entera ( forably, ■(
“ ’ oocessary) the house o£

BCto Bapla. a toan she ^^ng

on her head either a basicci

0( the corolla ot the nxAno ‘I™'’- "
a bundle ol firewood, and stays w
house tor n day nr two .n sp.te ^ =dj
remonstrance or even persecubon. She a
10

146

The BirJtors,

then recognized as a Sits wife or a Z>Aifcii
lo some cases it is beUeved tlut siiclia
gir is attracted to her lover's house by some
ch^ or medicin^ root or powder adminis-

Ce^ I intermediary

Cenertly, however, the lover's people 7o

speXhe bSsT“i

thpir j P<?opIc iji a f(.a£t to

tlieir fnends and rehtivea The bride^
people are algo invitpH r ^
bridegroom's house "here \wl

applied to the K-.. , 'ermilion ,s

The &>iil<J{,6j!!|lt^,

Bil6-ba-ph. t„ -T^f iirn converse of the
oop*^- In this form of marriage, a

S^jpudci man wlio wishes

Siplas to marry a particular ^jirl
is not allowed to do so

ites in watt for tbcgirl with a litue vermilion

* Sr/umditt* Baph'

147

diliiied in oil, and whai lie meets her alone
Applies it on her forehead. This .s some¬
times done at a market-place or at a fair,
and. in such a case, the young iman takes
care to have with him a few fnends to help
him in resisting by force any opp^ihon
from the girTs people who may happen
to be present.

The appliation of the vetm.li<» to the
torehead of the girl is
tantantount to mamage i an eve ^
eiTl’s people refuse to make her
?.mk'but gives her ^

another, such a later mamage
considered a smgh^ ^ or second
and wiU not be attended with all he

ceremonies required to be

regular marriage of a spinster, ^

however, the parents consent to

husband taking aw-ay the girl :dter ha g

paid the usual

one rupee and four annas to the elders
girl's ma. The usual wedding-feast is pm-
vlded to complete and wUdate tlm

When a man haviug a wile h,

The Birhon.

raarrica another woman, the form of union
is known as BirUm

second wife is a
ffirnm Bapla- spinster, the bridegoom
has to pay one or two
rupees in addJ lion to the usual bride-
price of nine rupees. If this second wife
is a widow, tliis fomi of union is known as
Ssnghs hapls. TJie same name is also ap¬
plied to the marriage of a widower to a
widow or to a divorced woman. Is such
marriages the amount of tfie bride-price is
only two rupees and eight annas besides a
s«n-cloth. The bridegroom, attended by
three or five friends, tikes the money and the
sari to the bride's house, where the marriage
usually takes place. The bride has her
head well oiled and combed for the occa¬
sion. The bridegroom places on the
pjund an earthenware pot of oil and a
little vermilion in a siif*l<;af. The bride
puts on the new sari and a female relative
of hers takes up a little vermilion from !the
leaf, mixes it in oil, and with a thin reed
applies it on the parting of her hair. The

Plate XXTI.—Type oF n BivliOr
woiimD carrying lier cliilcl.

•V

(

Siring-jim'ac Bapla. i49

bride now salutes johats all present by
bowing down and touching her head vnth ttie
joined palms of her hand. The bridc^Toom,
too, <sa?3nw all present by nusing his hands
to his forehead. The bride's parents give
a feast to tlic guests, after which the bride¬
groom and his party return liomc 'with
the bride.

In the Kvi'iiig^jowse haptd ( Bought son-
in-law nuuriage ) the expenses required for
the marriage are advcnced
jjy father-in-iaw and
repaid in convenient instal-
mctils by the son-in-law. Although the
bride is taken to the bridegroom’s
after the marriage, both bride and bride¬
groom return after a fortnight or a month to
the bride’s father's psiida and both remain
there until the bride-price is repaid.

The GiAhdf hapla or Gm-hadla { marriage
by cxcliange of betel-nuts ) is an exchange
marriage for which no

O^Uuit Sa^la- casli payment has to bo
made, one family exchan¬
ging a son or nephew and a daughter or

150

The Birkors.

nioce ’respectively for a bride and bride-
groom from the other family. In other
words, a man gives his daughter or nicce
in martiage to the son or nephew of
another Birhof and takes in exchange the
latter's daughter or niece as a bride
for hia own son or nephew. With
the exception of the payment of bride-
price, the same ceremonies are observed
as in the case of a regular marriage (aadar
bapHi},

In the Beng-k^rhi bspla, the bride, owing
to her parents* poverty, is taken to tlie

bridegroom's house to be
married, f n other respects
the ceremonies arc the

same as in a regular maniage.

I shall now proceed to describe tlic pro-
cedure followed and the ceremonies obseved

at a regular BirJwr mar-

Sftlu Sapla- riage known as StuZar

Bapla which is more in

fashion among tire JSffhis tlian among the
Ufhlns.

Marriage Negotialions. ISl

(II )_Marhiage Negotiations.

When the guardian of a marriageable boy
hears of a suitable girl, he sends
friends to the girl's parents. The
usuaUy consists of three men. They
generally start at such an hour that they may

reach their destination a little before sunsd.
Arrived at the house, they leave their s,ticU
outside the doorway. This is a notice o
the inmates of the house tl-t the pa^
have come to negotiate for a bnde. If the
family feel incUned to entertain the propo^
sal, they indicate it by taking f

the sbclts and carrying them mside i
house. A few female membci^ of the
family now come out with jugs ( o
■ u-at J and wash the feet of the guests
Hunting ucts arc spread for them to si
upon, and they are regaled with
tobacco mixed with lime. After a little
friendly conversation, the guests be o\

Q sleep.

T/w Birhors.

(III)—Tak'Chanrhl

I5Z

Next morningi the father of the in^
forms the ifitya of the arrival of the party
proposing marriage. The Nsyd on being
satisfied that it is a desirable match, orders
the DigiiSr to assemble the people of Uie
tai^a on the open space (otigan) before
the girl's father's hut. The Naya himself
goes there and thus addresses the parly:
"WeQ, friends, what brings you here ? You
have placed your sticks at tlie door of tliis
hut- What may be your object ? The
people of the tsiida are afraid ( apprehensive
of some miscluef)." The spokesman of
the strangers replies, ‘‘'We have not come
to beat any one. We liavc come to the
hut where we saw the thing we liked. We
arc n-ailing to see whether ttic thing will
become ours.** The Nsya then tells them *
“When you have come here after some¬
thing you like, wliy should wc disappoint
you ? We shall fulfil your wishes." Now
the Digudr tells tJicm, “Well then, come
out with the customary clues (mg dasturj"

Plate XXlll.—Type of a uiiOiHe-
ageil Pii'liDr wt>niai» cavvying'
liei- cliilil-

-a

-^4 4

FiurKK 1.

Ohdiniii cviviiiiJiij'.)

FimjriR 2. {JUtm.~4tniL’ curMinuiiy.}

Preii winaHdS oj a Marriage. 153

They tlicreupon place before the assembled
men of Oie tan^a one rupee and four
annas as nSia^arouni, and eight annas aa
( money for fect-washing).

A figure, as in! diagram I, is now drawn
by a woman on the ground with riec-flour.

A brass*platc is placed at the centre
of the diagram, and on this plate s sum
of rupees four is placed (ifo. 3 being the
bride-price, and one rupee Uie price of
tlie engOrbage or doth for the brides
mother). Four pice are also placed by
the side of the rupees as F<xnfh'ai}4a oT
'eggs' of the four rupees. For decorating
(clioupurauni) the four comers feui pice
is paid to the artist The girl is carried
on the arms of some relative and seated
an the cast of the figure ttdth her face
turned to the east The father of the
girl takes his scat on tlie west of the
figure wth his face turned eastwards.
Kow the people of tlie address the

strangers: “Examine her well to sec if
she is lazy or lame or blind, or lias any
other defects. Look well, friends ■ o

154

The Birhori,

Jong she was uith us, she played about and
danced about It mattered little whether
she worked or not” The boy’s father or
other relative says, “We shall take up
whatever has fallen to our lot ( Hi., fallen
on the leaf-plate from which we arc eating )
whether it be an idler or a decrepit one.”
The bride now gets up and bows down
at the feet of each one. Then she is
carried inside the house on the arms of
a relative. The Digrmr then takes up the
brass-plate with the bride-price on it and
presents it before each of the men of the
twida present there, ayiog-^"Look, so-and-
so has been paid for to-day”, Every one
of them touches the money with his fingers
ami kisses those fingers. This seems to
indicate tluit the bride-price was originally
paid to tlie fSnda community as a whole,
The brass-plate with the bride-price is
next taken to the or spirit-seats

of the and each spirit is addressed,

“Look I this js tlie bride-pricc
paid for so-and-so. May she fare vvcil”.
Filially, Uis plate with the bride-pricc on it

Preliminaries of a Marriage. 155

is iaken to the tiding oi the girl’s father’s
hot and the ancestor*spirits supposed to
reside there are similarly invoked, and tlic
plate wth the money is left there.

Kow all drink liquor purchased with the
one rupee and four annas paid for the
purpose by the boy's people. In llie eve¬
ning boiled rice and pulse-soup are served
to all the guests including the men of tlie
tandii. Wliile tliey all stt doujn for their
meals, the of the mda or (if he

be not of the same clan as the brides
father ) some kinsm^ of the bride's and
a representative of the boys peoplsi arc
scaled in the middle of the row, and a leaf-
plate-ful of boiled rice and pulse-soup is
placed before each of thenL Before the
others begin eating, each of tliesc two men
Ukes up a handful of boiled rice from his
plate and lets fall on the ground one grain
after another, saying, rifiMij emape*
tonainp, JotrH gojgUr Iwji^ rw tih^ng do
ernapekanmng Takchanrhirs nfslufnt^fiSn^}4*
miSiyekwiaing hd^xgaeksnain^*- ‘’This (rice)
1 iun giving to-day, O so-and-so, so apd*so

156

The Birliors.

( Dames alJ deceased ancestors), and all
(ancestors) dead, lost or strayed, tins
to-day 1 am giving in the name of Tak-
ch^fhi. -Tliis rice 1 am giving,—I am
offering,"

Wiiilc making this offering, the bride¬
groom's father addresses by name all liis
deceased ancestars. The boy and girl arc
also named and the blessings of their res¬
pective ancestor-spirits arc invoked for their
future welfare.

Then the N&yn calls out—"Now, old and
young, cat boiled rice in the name of Tak-
cA 2« rki". All tJie men now eagerly attack
the rice and pulse placed before them in
leaf-plates. The NstfH and the iDiguar
besides eating their sliare (btUoari hhmjoi
tl]c meals as members of the receive
each from the hands of the girl heiself
one ikaffl (large leaf-plate) of boiled rice and
pulse-soup as the perquisites of their office
(called and ‘jDrjuars-wandi’

respectiii'ely), and these they take home.
After tlie men Imvc eaten, the women take
their meals. Then all retire tu bed.

Preliminaries of a Marriage. 157

Kest morning, the girl weaves three wrea-
tlics ot flowers, and the Dig^ makes three
garlands of Erendi (castor oil) seeds.
When the three guests sit down to bitak-
fast, Uic ^rl stands behind them wnth a
cup filled with pounded turmeric diluted
in water ; and as the men go on eating, she
besmears witli it the back ends of their wmsh
cloths The Diffitisr also takes his meal

that day at the hut of the girl's father. Wlien

they have finished eating, tlic Bigvar calls
together the men of the fsadfl. When all
are sealed on hunting-nets laid out for the
purpose, the Dig^ar places on the neck of
each man of the boy’s side an Staidi gar¬
land and one of the wreathes of flowers
woven by the girl. Now tl,e people of tlie
ffiiida ask the guests to fix a date when they
may visit the boy’s tmda for the j6n^«di
ceremony. Generally, the seventh ornmth
day after the Tak chmf^i ceremony is
fixed for this purpose. Then the guests
make obeisance to their hosts ( ic

men of the which the latter rchim,

andUiey tlicn take leave of one anollier.

158

Tli£ Birliors.

(iv Jom*MaNDi.

On the dny preceding that fixed for the
JdJii-mBudi ceremony, the men who are to
go to the bridegroom's house for the pnr»
pose take out their walking-stichs (lathis)
and place them at the door of the bride’s
father's hut. The bride takes up each stick
and hands it over to its respective owner,
The men—^half a do^n or more in number
—ask her, "Which way shall we go ?" The
girl points to the direction in which the
men who Jiad come for the Tak-ehanrhi
ceremony went home to their f tfoda
As soon as the party arrive near the
bridegroom’s house, the Diffuar of the
bridc'groom's tojidd comes out, takes
charge of the walking-sticks of the
guests and ties them up in a bundle
w'hich is kept inside the hut. Then he
brings out a jar or two of water from which
the bridegroom pours water on the legs and
feet of the guests which the Digitsr cleanses
by rubbing them with lus liands. Huntiug-
ngts are spread out for the guests to sit

preliminaridi of a Marriage. U9

upon. When they are seated, the bride¬
groom's people ask them, “What did yon
see on your way here ?“ The guests reply
"On the way, wc met with a girl and asked
her, *Oh, dear, where is your father gone
The girl answered, 'My father is gone to
catch the rains of heaven’ (meaning, to
gather thatcliing-gmss). Then we asked
her, 'Where is your mother gone ?' The
girl answered, 'She is gone to take a dead
person inside the house’ (meaning, to
transplant paddy-seedlings as a labourer),
The bride’s people now say, "O friends I
A mango tree bore fruit; an old woman
told her husband, ‘Get metlic mango by
tlirowing a stick at it’ (meaning, get me
rice-beer to drink). The old man threw
a stick at it and the mango fell and the
stick came down on the other side of the
tree striking down a deer as it fed ( sugges¬
ting, let a goat be slain for our entertain¬
ment ). Men of each party now aaiam those
of the other party and enquire atout Iheir
health and well-being. Then riddles of a
certain type known as

Tlt^ Bithors.

arc asked and solved. For ibis occasion,
five jars of rice-beer were already set abrevv-
ing on the retum of the three men who
had gone to the bride's house for the Tah^
chanfhi ceremony. One of these pots of
rice-beer is now brought out to the
strained, and distributed to the guests.
This is called %e fatigue-removing jar’.
After some friendly conversation, the guests
arc treated to a meal of boiled rice, boiled
pot-herbs, and pulse-soup. Then all retire
to bed.

Next morning the bride’s father, the bride
and the bridegroom and the guests bathe
themselves. Then, a figure like that
in diagram T, is drawn on the ground
with rice-flour; a copper pice is placed
on each of the four comers of the figure,
and two saf-leaf-plates are placed o\'ct the
figure, one to the east of the other. The
bridegroom is seated on the leaf-plate to
the east and tlie bride’s fatlier on that to
the west Tlie men of the bridegroom's
party now say to those of the bride's side,
**Look well, friends, examine tlic bridegroom

Prdimimries of a Marriage. ioi

and see if lie is idle or lame or blind or has
any other defects". The bridegroom's
father replies, “1 am satisfied with what has
fallen on my plate". The bridegroom then
bows down to the bride’s fattier, and rises
from bis seat on the figure and proceeds
to aalam every one else present there. In
the meanwhile, the father of the bride and
the father of the bridegroom embrace each
other, and tlie men on both sides stUmi
one another.

Two more jars of rice*beer are now
brought out. Men of the bridegroom’s side
tell the guests, "People lay out rice to dry,
mushrooms to dry, bamboo shoots to clrj.
\Vc are drying up men (by keeping you
so long without food )". The guests reply,
"Ko, friends; don't say so. Our people
at home are saying of us, ‘they arc gone

for they are drinking rice-beer ;

in a short while there uHll he slaying of g(^ts
or deer; in the evening tlvey will cat nee,
pulse-soup, and meat”. Now the men on
both sides get up and embrace one another
U

162

The Btrhars.

and resume their seats. When all are
seated again, the N^S^Ss of the two parties sit
down in live middle, each with a mug of
rice-beer placed before him ; and from this
mug he offers libations to the spirits of the
ancestors of bride and bridegroom reapcc*
lively invoking their blessings for the
success of the jowi-tn^ndi ceremony. The
2fdy(i» now* call upon the guests to do
justice to the rice-beer and they all fall to
with avidity.

Then follows a ceremony of great social
importance to the tribe. Tlie bridegroom
stretches forward his hands on w'hich is
placed a plate made of saMeaves and over
it a brass bowl (idtS) tilled with water. His
father calls upon the men of his tsada to say
if there is in their opinion any social taint
or social offence on his part to be expiated
by a fine or feast If the bridegroom’s
family has been remiss in the past in ttieir
social duties ( for instance, if they have not
given a feast on the occasion of a marriage
in the family ) or have been guilty of any
social offence (c. g., if an unmarried

Preliminaries of a Marriage. 163

daughter has been giulty of an intrigue
with a youth of the same clan or of a
different tribe or caste which remains
uncxpiated ), no man of the fa&fa will touch
the IbfQ unless the bridegroom’s people
promise to provide the customary feast or
pay tJic customary fine. And in such a
case, the bridegroom's father will at once
give an undertaking to do wliat is required
of him, and then, and not till then, will
the Ivta be touched by a man of each
clan of the bridegroom's and also of

the bride’s tflJidu. If in the opinion of
tlie peopfe of the the bride¬

groom’s family has not been guilty of any
social offence or neglect of social duty
a representative of cacti clan in his
as also a representative of each clan in the
bride's fasdA, touches the fuW, thereby
signifying that they have no objection to
drinking water and taking food at the
hands of the members of the family. Tiien
the bridegroom's father says, **Now, you
lutvc touched the lots. Would you eat dry
ricegrmns or would you have them soaked

164

The Birhon.

in water This is an euphemistic way of
asking, '^Would you tiave only unboiled
rice to eat or wait for it to be boiled ?"
The guests reply, "VVe should liave
rice soaked in w-ater. How could we
swallow dry rice ?" Then tlie bridegroom’s
father says: “All right, you will have
rice soaked in water. Shall we look out
for pot-herbs ( meaning, meat) or not ?
Shall wc pluck edible leaves or not ( mea¬
ning, shall we slay a goat or otlier aaimal)
Some one of the bride's people replies,
“Yes, how should ue cat boiled rice with¬
out any 'relish' ? Look out for w'batever
poLherbs ( nieaning, meat) you can get"
A goat or other animal is now brought
out by the bridegroom's father or some
other relative. Two men of the bride's
father's party step forward j one holds the
goat by the legs so as to make it face to
the east, the other man slays the goat by
severing its neck with an axe. The head
of the animal is then cut into pieces and
roasted. Each piece of the roasted meat is
put lu a sdl’leaf cover and handed over one

Belrotbal/^asL

to each male gnest. Ricc-bccr is then
distributed in leaf-cups. This is called
'the liquor for the head (of the goat}'.
One of the haunches of the animal is set
apart for the bride's people to take back to
their

In the evening, dinner is announced,
and ail take their seats in the j the

Ifatjs of the bridegroom's and the

Nsys or, in his absence, some other res¬
pectable elder of the bride's sit in

the middle. Dinner is served first on the
jaf-Ieaf-plates laid out one before each of
these two men and then on the plates
placed before the other guests. Each
of Uiese two men first drops on the ground
some grains of boiled rice from their plates
in the names of their dead ancestors,
saying, aa they' do so,—“To-day we have
come for the ceremony of so-

and-so (the A’iiyo of the bridegroom’s
side names the bridegroom, and the Aflyd
or other elder of the bride's side names
the bride); come ye all, O Spirits of our
departed ancestors I you and wc shall all

166

The Birhors.

cat together to-day. May die brido (or
bridegroom ) remain in health, and
may the marriage be prosperous". After
this the two men first cat two mouthfuls
of food, and then ask the other guests to
bei^n eating. When dinner is finished,
the guests wash their hands and moutJis,
and chew powdered tobacco-leaves mixed
with lime. Then all retire for the night.

Next morning, when breakfast is ready,
the men of the bride's t&adu are conduc¬
ted to some neighbouring spring or stream
to batlie. Then, after they have finished
their breakfast and taken powdered tobacco
mixed with lime, the men of the
are assembled. The Bi^ar of the bride¬
groom's now anoints the men of the

bride's tsadA with oil and pounded tur¬
meric, and places a garland of Mren^i
( castor oil ) fruit on tlic neck and a wreath
of flow'crs round tlie head of each of those
men.

Now tlie men of the bridegroom’s fflydd,
in consultation with tlie men from the
bride’s fd'jda, fix a date for bringing ‘Idlin’

J6?

Fixing the date for ntartiage.

ironi the bride's place. Then the DigTiOr
brings out the sticks of the guests, and
after an exchange of saJutations with tlie
bridegroom’s p&opU, they return to their
home. Tlie bride's father pays two pice
to tlie of the bridegoom's

{the care he took of tlie
sticks ) and two pice more for otim

{ washing their feet),

(X ^_FixtXG THE Logon ( Logon-tol. j

On the date fixed for Uic ‘foff5n’, three men
of the bridegroom’s fsijda go to tlie bride s
faada to bring As on prmnous

occkons the takes cliarge of the

sticks'of the guests, and the feet of tlie
guests are washed. -After taking their
evening meal of boiled rice, pot-herbs,
etc., and chewing powdered tobacco nnxed
with lime, Ure guests retire for Hie night.
Kext morning, the Di§uar of Uic
conducts the guests to some spring or
stream where Uiey wash their faces and
bathe Uiclr bodies. Then they go back to
tlie bride's house where tliey arc treated to a
hearty breakfast,—for Uie ceremony

16S

The Bir/tof^,

must never be performed with an empty
stomach. When the guests Iiave taken
tJieir breakfast, the men of the tan^S arc
all assembled by the IHguar, The open
space faj^dnJ in front of the bride's house
is cleaned with earth and water and a
female draws on the ground thus cleaned
a figure tike that previously drawn, and a
copper pice is placed on each of its four
comers and two Mi-leaf-plates are placed
over it, one to the cast of the other. The
bride is brougltt out of the hut on the
arms of a female relative and seated on the
lc:if-plate to the west with her face to the
east and the palm.s of her hands joined
together and stretched out before her*
The father or other relative of the bride¬
groom who has come to settle the
takes his seat on the leaf-plate to the cast
with his face turned west towards the bride.

female relative of the bride sits down
behind her and covers with her liands
the eyes of the bride so that she may not
sec anybody or anything. The man sitting
on tlie leaf-plate to her cast now puts upon

Fixing the date for Marriage. 169

her out-stretch cd palms a little arua rice
and two small strips of unbleached cotton-
thread dyed yellow with turmeric and
formed into five knots each. While the
rice and threads are put into the hands
of the girl, she holds the joined palms of
her liand in such a manner tliat the rice
and the threads may at once drop down
Ihrough the opening between the palms
on a leaf-cup placed on tlie ground under¬
neath. The five knots in the tliread
indicate that the or wedding-day is

fixed at tlic fifth day from that dale. The
bridegroom’s people return to their
witli one of the knotted threads, leaving
in the leaf-cup the other Uiread for the
bride’s people.

(VI)—The Chcman or Kissing of the

LoCON*TUREAD.

The mother of the bride, accompanied
by a few other women, now proceeds to
make cAwman ( kissing) of the ui the

following manner. She carries in a flat

170

The Birhors.

basket a handful of dltm or unhusked
rice, one or two bbdes of tender grass, and
ajt earthen lamp with a lighted wick in it,
and waves the basket tiirce times in front
of the leaf-cup containing the thread
and then places the basket on the ground
in front of tlie Icaf-cup. She next takes
up some paddy from the basket and scat¬
ters it three times on the ffi^ii-thread, and
tiicn having warmed the palms of her hands
in the flame of the lamp places them over
the fegw-thread. This process of cAumJht
or ‘kissmg' of the f^on-tlircad with the
heated palms of the hand Is repeated tliree
limes by the mother of the bride. And
each of her companions too successively
makes cAmndn of the thread by scat¬
tering on it dhan from tlie hasket three
times, and by tlirice placing on tlie f^vn-
tJircad her liands warmed in the hame
of the lamp. Then they return to the hut
with the basket.

Omen reading.

171

( vu )—Ascehtaining the ouens from
THE Logon-thread.

A mail or magician of the tribe is now
asked to read the 'fortune' of the bride from
the %o«-tliread. The mdi» washes liis
hands and feet, takes bis scat in Itic iJnjoji
and begins his operations with a handful
of rice and two copper pice placed before
him in a new sup or winnowing-basket.
The matt mutters invocation after invo-
cation to the spirits, mbs liis hand on the
rice in the scatters rice several times

across his own head wliich he soon begins
to si lake violently. In this way he works
himself up into a state of ecstasy which tlie
onlookers believe to be a sign of spirit-
possession. Now the brides father inter¬
rogates the spirit supposed to liave
possessed the *'\Vtiat&Aii^ art thou T

he asks. The reply, given througli the
mouth of the miUi is "I am such-and-such
a bhit ( names The fatlier of tJie bride
then places a few grains of rice from the
sS^i on the paliti of the mstCs hand and

The Birkatt,

tells the supposed spirit,—“Exnmme the
rice and reveal the future luck of so-and-
so ( naming the bride )". The mati now
appears to con the rice in his hand intently,
turning his hand this way and that way,
and then exclaims—"Go, now. It is aU
right. The girl will prosper m life". He
then returns the rice to the bride's father
wiio in his turn places the %5ii-thrcad

On the hand of the mstif saying, _"O !

such-and-such a bh& ( names ), thou art
here I Do thou examine this fw^n-thread,
too." The mart* examines tJie f^n-thread
in the same manner and gives it back to
the bride's father, saying,—"It is all right,
take it to the spirit-seats (thJiaTis), !□ all
spirits and godlings (hhut-d^oa} in uplands
and rocky places ftanr-tiliir) and then bke
it into your but". Either the bride’s
father or some other member of tJie family
or the i^^udr of the tonda now takes
up tlie leaf-cup with the /ajwi-thread lu
it and carries it to each spirit-seat
and exclaims,—"Look, the of so-and-
80 (names tlie bride) has been knotted

Otumi'eading.

to-day. May she have good luck". Then
he returns to the hut with the logon in the
leaf-cup, and distributes some of the rice
iu it to Ids #a«da-feIlow5 by way of invi¬
tation to the wedding. Invitation to friends
and relatives belonging to other is

issued by sending a little turmeric-dyed
rice to them, sometimes with slices of betel-
nuts. The leaf-cup with Uie %5u-thr(ad
in it is finally deposited in the sacred advog
of the hat where the anccstor-Epirits are
believed to have tl;eii seats.

( \T11 )—AsCEHTAtNING THE OMENS FI40M

and making Chuuan of the Logon
AT THE Bridegroom's tanda.

Arrived at tiieir miih the bridegroom's
people place tlve ioffSnrthrcad on a Ic^-cup
on the court-yard of the bridegroom s huh
The coiirt-y:^, it may be mentioned, is
cleaned beforehand with a coating of mud
or, in some places, of cowduog. As was
done at the bride’s place, a mdri tells the
fortune of the bridegroom from the

The Birhors,

thread ; tlie ‘^kissing' of the logon ta done
by women; the leaf containing the logon-
tliread is taken to each spint*seal in tlie
tan^S and the blessings of the spirits are
invoked ; and finally the ^^on'thread is
deposited in tlie sdittg of the bridegroom's
hut.

Tlie md/i again works himself up into a
state of supposed possession by another
spirit. A little oil mixed with poimdcd
turmeric is placed in a donS ( leaf-cup )
before liim, and a stone lorha ( stone used
in pounding turmeric and other condi¬
ments ) is placed in his hands. He then
brings one end of the lofhti in contact witli
the oil and pounded turmeric in the dona
and with this end of the lorha anoints the
bridegroom’s feet, knee-foints, elbows and
forehead with oil and turmeric. Thence¬
forth every evening until the day fixed for
the marriage, his female relatives anoint
his body with oU mixed with pounded
turmeric.

The Adhibas Cerematty. 17^

( IX }—Ad HI BAS OF THE BRIDEGROOM,

On the morning of the day when the
bridegroom’s party is to start for the bride s
place (which is usually the day fixed for
the marriage ), a party of women go in a
procession to a neighbouring stream or
spring to fetch ceremonial water. The party
includes two spinsters, each of whom carries
a new earthen pitcher {)> another
woman who carries a sword and another a
bow and arrows. When the two spinsters
liave filled their pitchers with water and
pbced them on their heads, some woman
tabes a long thread dyed yellow witli turme¬
ric, twists it three Umes round the necks
of the two pitchers, and covers their rooutlis
with a new piece of clotii similarly dyed.

On their return to the bridegroom's place
the two spinsters stand before the door of the
hut each wth her pitcher poised on her
head. The mother of the bridegroom
comes out \rith a potsherd containing some
live chareoa! and sprinkles a handful of
mustard-seeds on the fire. hen the

Tli£ Birhon.

niustar^-^^ bum in the Arc, the potsherd
willi its contents is left upside down on the
courtprd. As the object of the drawn
sword and the bow and arrows appears
to be to scare away evil spirits, so the
object of the burning of the mustard seeds
would appear to be to prevent the evil
eye of others from doing liarm to tlic
bridegroom. Each of the two water-
carriers receives from the bridegroom’s
mother a reward of two pice.

The two pitchers of water are now
deposited in the courtyard on some stand,
preferably a string-bed. The sister’s hus¬
band of the bridegroom digs a miniature
tank about a foot deep and two feet square
and on its eastern edge plants a plantain
sapling. On its wt^tern edge a stone-slab
is placed over three bundles of thatching
grass. The bridegroom and his mother
sit down on tliis stone-slab with their faces
to the east. With mango-twigs brought
by tire bridegroom's elder sister's liusband,
die two girls sprinkle water from their
pitchers on the bridegroom, who is then

17?

The Adhibas Cermony,

ballicd in the water of one of the two
pitchers, and his motlier is bathed in that
of the other. The bridegroom tlrcn takes
a meal of boiled rice, pot*herbs, etc. His
mother then takes up on her head a new
winnowing-basket (i^} containing one
arrow, one lighted earthen lamp, some rice,
and four pice and sits down at the door
of her hut just inside the door-step. Tiie
bridegroom sits clown facing her on the
other ( outer) side of the door-step. TJ^e
husband of the bridegroom’s sister now
soaks a small mg with a little blood drauTi
from the left-hand little finger of tlie bride¬
groom. Tliis rag, known as is

wTapped up in another rag, and put into the
ivaist cloth of the bridegroom. The hus¬
band of the bridegroom’s elder sister now
twists into the sliapc of cigarettes each of
tile mango leaves with which water was
sprinkled on the bridegroom ; and from
these he makes six ijarlands, three leaves
being strung together for each. These
garlands are worn, one on the arm ami
12

The BirhQn.

one on tlie teg of the bridegroom, and
similarly one on tlie arm and one on
the teg of the bridegroom's fattier and
one on an amt and one on a leg of the
bridegroom's mother, The bridegroom’s
elder sister's husband also threads a betel-
nut on a string wliich he stings across the
bridegroom's right shoulder like the sacred
thread of a BrSlmtan.

( % )—BRmEQnooii's Vli-Sakhi

The bridegroom now puts on his bridal
dress, consisting of a or loin cloth
dyed yellow witli turmeric, and, if possible, a
cliSdar or wrapper for the body, and a piece
of cloth to serve as a p^ri or turban.
He now proceeds on the arms of his elder
sister’s husband to a mango-tree on the
way to tlie bride’s village, accompanied
by bis mother and other women of the
fd'tdn. The women cany a lofd or water¬
ing, two leaf-plates, besides a few leaf-cups
containing respectively motasscs, rice fiour,
vermilion, and some unbleached thread.

TU& Bridegroom'^ VU’Sakhu 17^

Arrived at the foot of the tree, the bride¬
groom with tlie little finger of his right
hand puts a mark of venmlion on the trunk
of the tree ; and while his finger is still on
the tree, a woman twists a tliread five
limes round the trunk just below the
vermilion mark. Someone now brings
dovm with a stick some leaves or twigs
of the tree, and the stalks of a few of these
mango leaves are handed over to the
bridegroom who after chewing them a
little gives them to hb mother who swallow's
them mixed with molasses. This is repeated
five limes. This would appear to be a
fertility rite.

The bridegroom and his party, consisting of
both men and women, tnclnding tlie I ms-
band of one of hb younger sisters or cousins
who acts as the Lakindi or best man, now
start for the bride's while his mother
and a few otlier women return home.
Tlie mother remains fasting until the time
for the wedding which generaliy takes
place early next morning. She may, how¬
ever, tike any spirituous drink she pleases.

The Birhors.

( 30 )—CtRCUMAMBULATlON OF THE
Bride’s taeda.

When they arrive at the boundary of
the bride’s the bridegroom and his

party walk round it tlirce times and
finally enter an enclosure (jhihnfH) of
twigs and branches of trees made for
their accommodation by the bride's people,

( xi[ )—Adfnbas of thc Bride.

Now the Adfihib&e ceremony of tlie
bride is performed in exactly the same
manner as the bridegroom's ttdhhibsg [vide
f ix ) an(e], the only difference being that
blond is drawn from the little Huger of the
bride's right hand (and not left hand as
in the case of the bridegroom), and a
tliread with a betel-nut strung Gki it is
slung across the bride's left shoulder (and
not right shoulder as in the case of [the
bridegroom ). The bride’s sister’s hus¬
band dischnigcs tlie same functions (such
as digging the miniature itank ) that we

Tht BriiU's ^Adhibm:

liavc seen the bridegroom’s sister's husband
performing on the occaaon of the bridc’
groom’s <xdhib9s, A few women of the
bridegroom's party go to the bride's place
and anoint her with oil and turmeric.
She then bathes and puts on the bridal
clotli presented by the bridegroom’s parents.
A feiv women of the bride’s party go to
the bridegroom’s quarters (jh^fn) with
oil and turmeric and similarly anoint him
therewitli and then he bathes and puts on
his bridal clothes.

( xiH )k— rirc/j/m Parchha ok Welcoming
THE BR[DECR00U.

When the bridegroom ani\*^ in proces¬
sion before the bride’s father's hut^ three
or five females come out to w'elcome liim
They carry a new basket containing poun¬
ded turmeric and three or five torches
made of rags soaked in oil and wound
round stalks of mango leaves. Standing in
front of the bridegroom, each of ttic women
in turn tiolds wie of these lighted torches

182

m Bir/tors,

in her left handj and with her right hand
besmears the temples of the bridegroom
ivith pounded turmerici The bridegroom
in his turn besmears with his right hand
pounded turmeric on the temples of these
ivomen. Then the women throw away
their torches.

{ XIV )—Sprinkling the BRinEGBOoa with
Cerkuoxial Water.

Two pitchers of w-ater liave already been
brought from some nciglibouricg stream,
lank, or spring, by two girls with llic
foUovring ceremonies, The girls,' while
going to draw water, are accompanied by
some married women, one of whom carries
an axe fp/tarsaj or, if available, a sword,
and another, a bow and an arrow. Arrived
at the stream, tank, or spring, one of the
married women puts three marks of ver¬
milion on the bank, and gives ttiree
strokes with the axe or sword on the
water. The pitchers are then filled with
water and brought home by tire girls.

Ceremonial Sprinkling of Water, 183

When the bridegroom and the female
relatives of his bride have been ceremonially
introduced to one another by the srcihhS'
parchka ceremony, two girls come out
with these pitchers of water, and with a
few small mango twigs sprinkle tlic water
all over the bridegroom's body. The
bridegroom, in his turn, dips one or two
mango-twigs into a bowl of water held up
before him by some one of his party.
The bridegroom's father gives two pice
to each of the two girls. This appears to be
a ceremonial sonctiBcation or, at any rate,
purification of the bridegroom.

(xv}—I ntboductios of the Bridegroom
TO HIS Mother-in-law.

Some married ivomen of tlic brides
idtida now come out witli a new basket
containing some unhusked rice, tender
grass-shoots, two baked ricc-flour cakes
and a number of smatl round pellets of
boiled rice-flour and a quantity of pellets
made of cowduog. Tlirec of five of the

J84

The Birhors.

women (bdudlng the mother and paternal
aunts of the bride ) now take up from
tlic basket the lice-Hour pellets and one
after another wave them round the bride¬
groom’s head and then throw them away
in tlic direction of the bridegroom's
Then they similarly wave the pellets of
cowdung and throw them towards tlie
bride’s hut. The bride's mother next
takes up tlie two ricc-flour cakes and
touches the bridegroom’s cheeks with them
and then kisses the cakes and puts tliem
back into the basket She then anoinb
the checks of the bridegroom tlirice witli
molasses, and vripes away the marks with
water from the fikd. Flially, she takes up
a AAmai or wooden pestle, flourishes it
before the bridegroom and then strikes it
on the ground telling the bridegroom, as
she does so, ’'Mind, if you do not bring
home game w'e shall beat you in tliis
manner," After this the bridegroom is
taken back to tlic jhamfH or enclosure
Where his people have been accommodated.

Pluto XXIV.—Am nhlti PirliOr
wottmii LiiskifJK i*ic«J with u wooflen
pestle (sUfndfJ iQ ft wontTeti mortar. In
front of 1iL»r is u winnowing fun.

1^5

T/w Bride's VliSakhi,

XVI)—Bride's

Now the bride's mother with a tew other
women proceed towds a n^fio-tree.
One of the women carries the bride in her
arms. This mango-tree must not be in the
direction of the bridegroom's ffl'.'da.
Should there be no mango-tree in the
village in any direction otlicr than tliat in
which the bridegroom’s is situate,

3 mango brancli is planted in the ground,
in a suitable direction and, under lliat tree
or branch, tlie same ceremomcs are per¬
formed by the bridegroom and his mother
and others as we have seen at tlie bride¬
groom’s uK-afliAt ceremony.

{ XVII)—Looting the Sard-dhofL

The bridegroom now returns from 1^
VAflmffl* to the bride's place and stands in
the courtyard. This time he has u new
wound round his neck. The
of the bride's approaches him, car'

rving on his shoulders a younger brotlicr
of the bride, and stands face to facewitli

The Birbofs,

the bridegroom, Both the bride’s younger
brother and the bridegroom now put a hand¬
ful of ran rice each into his own mouthy and
each blows on the other the rice in his
mouUi, Then Hnally the bride's brother
snatches away from the neck of the bride- ■
the new cloth known as the
dhoti* or the ‘cloUi for the wife's younger
brother,*

( xvn )—Exchange of Blood,

The bride is now brought out on a
bamboo basket carried by three or four
men. Two s^-lcaf-plates are placed
side by side on the ground in tlie court¬
yard { and in certain clans on a mud
platform known as erected in

the courtyard for the purpose). The
bridegroom stands on one of these
plates nith bis face to the cast, and the
bride stands on the other with her face to
the west. Two women Imld up a clotJi
as a screen between them. The bride and
bridegroom pelt each oUrer witli unboiled

Exchaftf^c of Blood. i S7

ncc tlirco tirncs scross this screen* Then
ttiey change places. The or blood-

stained rag of the bridegroom is now pul
into his hand and the bride’s flwat is put
into her hand. They first bring their
respective swtdw in contact with the earth,
then in contact with their own necks, and
finally the bridegroom touches the neck of
the bride with his and the bride

touches his neck with hers. This process
is repeated three times. Then they again
change places, and exchange tlieir garlands
of mango leaves.

(xtx)— Sindwri-rniah on Anointing
wjTii Vermilion.

Now comes tlie essential and binding
p.ul of the marriage ceremonial—the mutual
application of vermilion Ur’hicJi makes the
pir man and wife. The bride at first hi^
her face fully veiled. On the bridegroom s
father or some other relative putting on
a brass bracelet on her left anti, the bride
unveils her forehead, thus permitting it to

The Birhors,

be marfeed with venniL'oti, The bride¬
groom first puts three marks of oiJ on the
ground and over each of these marks puts
a mark of vermilion. Then the bridegroom
and the bride change places. The bride-
grooni now with the fingers of his right
hand besmears the bride's forehead with
vermilion. Then the bride similarly puts
three marks of oil and, over them, of
vcnmlion, on the ground, changes places
with the bridegroom, and with her right-
tiand fingers besmears the bridegroom's
forehead with vermilion. In some fandds,
where the people Iiavc come in contact
vrith Hindu or Hindtiized aborigines, the
spectators give lusty shouts of ‘^Marihdf.^
Han ( Halleluiah ) while bride and bride¬
groom are putting vermilion marks on
each other's forehead. Until this anointing
with vermilion, tiie mother of the bride,
like the mother of the bridegroom at her
iat^a, observes a fast although she may
drink liquor.

After this ceremony, tiic

bride, the bridegroom and liis arc

189

Visit to the SpiriiShrim

taken round to the ihaons or spmt*sKts
of the f and at each of these tkddns,
they bow dowTi before the wooden and clay
symbols of the spirits at tlicse shrines.

( XX)—Barring the Door against
THE Bridegroom. ( Dnar ' ChhekHuni ^)

The bride and bridegroom are now
conducted from the courtyard tourards die
bride's hut. A few girlfriends of the bndc
take their stand at the door and prevent
their entrance into hut To make them
desist from barring their w:iy, the
bridegroom's father pays them a nofobum
of an or so, Tlien the pair enter die

hut and are seated on a palm-leaf mat.
Ihe bride’s younger sister now places
before the bridegroom a lugh-britmned
plate tilled u-ith water. The bridegroom
places his feet in the w-ater and a young
sisterrin-law washes them and then tirmly
clasps liis legs with her liands, and mil
not let go until the bridcgrooiu's father
makes her a present of an ^r,na or so.

The Birhars.

The bride’s inoUicr now p[aces a disJi of
rice, either boiled or parched, together
with inoJasses, before the bridegroom.
But tile bridegroom will not eat Uiis food
unless some present—either a brass vessel
or a goat or other animal—is given to him.
VVlien he Is thus satisfied he eats the food.
The ^rl is at the same time treated to
the same delicacies in another part of the
house.

(xsi)—^T he Mahsiage Feast and
Toucheng the Lota of Water. ( Aghia ,)

Tlie people of the bridegroom's party
now go and bathe in a stream or spring.
On tlielr return to the bride’s parents’
place, one or Uvo of the bride's relatives
irash tlieir feet. Two pots of rice^beer
are then brought out; one man on each
side offers a libation to his ancestor-spirits
iis we have seen done on tlie occasion of
the pm^mandC, after wJiich the liquor is
passed round. The Agui or representative
of the bride's people now comes forvi-ard

Touching the GobkL 19t

with a brass goblet (lota) placed on a
leaf-plate in his hands. The bridegroom's
father or other relative asks, "What is this
lota for The dgia replies, "Our. tribe-
fellows are asscmbleti to-day, W^ill they
take broken ricc-grains (khudi-inaf'hhu)
wet (boiled) or dry (unboiled) ? T am awalt-
iiig your orders"I, If there is any social
offence on the part of the bride's father s
family remaining to be expiated by a fine
or feast or both, no one mU touch tha
until the fine or feast demanded vs paid or
promised. If there is no such offence to
be expiated or when the required fine is
paid or feast promised, the bridegroom's
father touches the lofSy and says, ‘T have
lost myfofd, how can I eat dry rice ?’’
Then tlicre Ls an exchange of sahitadons
between to parties. The again holds

up tlic lofu witJi extended liands and asks,
"Stiall wc arrange for broken grains of

Thh lit sud b biMiinityi la fcality and nnt

ipninA ol rice juti laoMiU Thia ia of i* piefti
with tbo enphemiiilti? ima of ^t-bftrbi* For "niwt' and
•wet for rJae^

192

TVw Birhors.

rice alone, or aliould we look out for sonic
pot-herb ( meaning, an animal ) too i"
Then tlie bridegroom *s fattier again touches
the iotit and says, “Gather pot-herbs as
well". A goat or other animal is there¬
upon brougiit out and slain. Its head is
roasted and ^ten by the male guests as a
relish for llie liquor. One of die haun-
clies of the animat is set apart as a present
for lit? bridegroom's party to take to their
witli them, Jn IJie evening, dinner
is served in the same manner as in tlie
jam-mandi feast ( vide p. 165 ante ); and the
s^nic ccr^^motties are observed as in the
offering some rice to the
ancestor-spirits of bridegroom, and tlie two
headmen of the tv^'O parties eating two
morsels of rice before the otlier guests
begin. Mer tliis marriage-feast, the guests
u’ash thels liands and, mouths, chew pow¬
dered tobocco mixd ivitli hmc, and retire
to bed for the night.

^ Ttie bridegrotini and his best man or
LAh-indi sleep together that night in one
XamLi or leaf-hut, while the bride with

193

The ^Kissin£ Ceremony,

her JEifiJtffwrf i ( or bridesitiJiid ) who is ft
younger feioftle cousin { but not nn uterine
sister) of hers, sleeps in another kUmbet.

(xxji)—T he Chnnmn or Symqoucal
'Kissing' Ceremokv.

Next rooming, bridegroom and bride arc
conducted to the tlnjou or open space be¬
fore tlic main hut of the family, and are
seated on a palm-leaf mat. To the right
of the bridegroom is seated his
Similarly, to the left of the bride sits her
The women of the tnii4St om^
after another, come forward to make eftn-
niim, first of the bridegroom and then of
the bride in the foUowing manner: Each
takes up by turns a bamboo-basket contai¬
ning some unlmsked rice, tender grass-
shoots, and a liglited earthen oil-lamp,
wa\*es it three times before the face of tlie
bridegroom or bride, as tlie case tnay be,
sprinkles a few grains of unlmsked ncc and
a few tender shoots of grass on the head
13

The Birhors,

of the bridegroom or bride and then after
wanning lier hands by bolding them one
on each side of the lighted lamp, touches
the temples of the bridegroom or the
bride with the warm hands which she
then kisses herself.

(xxiri)— Beginning op the Taboo betoken
A Birhor and tbe Elder Sisters and
Cousins OF HIS Wipe.

As each uoman finishes the cAumfin,
she puts down a cash present known as
chumn pam {the amount varying from
an anna upwards according to tlie dreums-
dnees of the woman ) on a plate
pdeed before the pair for the purpose.
The elder sisters and cousins of the bride
are the fast to perform the ceremonial
cAumait of their brother-in-law. And in
their case an additional interesting ceremony
attends the ck^man. After the elder sisters
and cousins of the bride have performed
the chtmw/i ceremony as described above,
each of lj>em by toms asks tfie bride-

Taboo of Wife's Elder Sbkrs. 19S

groom what his name is. The bridegroom
tells liis name, and in his turn asks her,
*'Wha(: is your name, please f” She tells
her own name, and then, dipping a leafy
mango-stalk in a bowl, sprinkles water on
the bridegroom. The latter, in his turn,
sprinkles miter on her witii a mango-stalk
dipped in water in a brass-plate placed
before him. As each woman finishes
this ceremonial sprinkling of water fdd-
hijnrchi or jhamka-Jhin^), she pulls the
bridegroom by the ears, deals three blows
with her fist on his back, and tells
him, ''From to-day regard me as your
Jeth-m; listen well witii your ears,
do not utter my name again with your
Ups". After saying this she puts her
present on Uie plate before the bride¬
groom and goes away. Thenceforth
the and bis may

not utter each other’s name nor sit together
on the same mat, nor come close to each
other, nor talk to each other except on
urgent and unavoidable business, and even
then from a respectful distance.

iH The BirJmrs,

( xsiv)—T he Farewell Ceremony,

Now the bridegroom prepares to return
to hja with his bride. The bride

stands just outside the threshold of her
hut with the palms of her hand joined
logetlier by the inner sides and extended
forward. The bridegroom stands behind
her on the door-step, clasping with Ivis two
1 lands the two uTists of the bride.

The bride’s mother stands just behind
the bridegroom and on the inner side of
the door-step. Some other woman standing
behind the bride’s mother holds a cloth
slretehed out at full length. Another
woman with a winnowing-basket, containing
some rice, stands by tiie side of the bride.
This woman places a handful of rice on
the extended palms of the bride’s ba nitg
and asks her, “Whose house are you filling
with plenty, dear ?" The bride replies,
“I am niltiig niy brother's hut with plenty’’,
and at the same time throws away the
rice over her ow-n head into the cloth
stretched out behind her mother. This is

The BridegrooM's Farctvcll. 197

repeated twice more* The object of this
ceremony is that the girl may not take
away plenty and prosperity from her
parents' or brother’s family* Kow Uic
bridegroom, carried on the arms of women
and followed by a number of other women
and ^rls, proceed in the direction of the
bridegroom’s Arrived at the out-

skirls of the bride’s father’s tania the
women come to a halt and ask for siUi~
or jjowfij tliat is to

say, a sdcAium for giving op their compa¬
nion ( the bride). The bridegroom’s
father gives them an anna or so, and they
retnm to their fanU learing the bride.
Then the bridegroom and his party proceed
towards their own with the bride and
her Lukhv4^

^ XXV )_ARCHHA-PAHCHftA OR WELCOMING

THE Bride.

When bride and bridegroom reacli
tlic bridegroom's place the bride is wel¬
comed at the flnyan or open space in front

The Birhon.

of the hovisc witli Ughled torches and
pounded turmeric in the same manner and
with the same ceremonies as we saw at the
bridegroom's stchhs-parchhs or welcoming
ceremony at the bride's fatlier’s place.
< See section xiii, page 181 wits. ) On this
occasion the mother of the bridegroom puts
an iron wristlet (khdru^) on the left arm of
the bride and besmears vermilion on her
forehead, and a number of other women
of the bridegroom's sing indecent

songs abusive of the bride. In certain
clans, such as the Lupnng and the Bhuiya
gotnxs, when a bridegroom returns liome
with his bride after marriage, mango leaves
on stalks are strewn all along the
path In the open space (migetn) in
front of his hut and up to the door of
the hut and inside it. As the bridegroom
treads over each leafy stalk the bride
who follows him carrying a fug of water
in one hand and dropping its water
all along tlie patli takes up each stalk in
her other hand and finally places them
all inside tlie hut beside the door.

The Bride’s Wdanne^

(3CXVI)—Fir^ day's Ceremonies at the
B ty degroom's House.

Then a number of girls take their stand
at the door of the bridegroom’s hut and
bar the entrance of the wedded pair until
they are given a present fJ>«ar-cAAeiiitcni
paisa). The bride’s pays them

an anna or so, whereupon they leave the

door.

When the pair enter the Imt, a younger
sister of the bridegroom washes tlm feet
of the bride and receives from the bride's
Laki>idi four pice for her trouble. Then
brideffoom and bride arc treated to a meal
of rice and molasses. They are next
conducted to the miniature tank prc\uously
excavated in the courtyard at the time of
the AdMiHA (vide page 176 aide). And
tlicre a few married women, whose husr
bands arc alive and living with them, bathe
the bridegroom and bride.

One of the women now closes with her
hands the eyes of the bridegroom who
then takes out three twisted-up mango

2Vjk BU’hors,

leaves which were fastened on his arm at
the Adlilitbaa ceremony (see page 177^
ante), and buries tJicra with his hands in
the water of the miniature tank. Another
woman then closes with her hands the eyes
of the bride who has now to search for the
mango leaves ivitli her hands and bring
them out one after another from the tank.
The bridegroom and bride are now con¬
ducted to the mffyea, or mud-platform
in the 3fiffan, and the chtmuin ^ kissing)
ceremony of the bride is performed first
by the bridegroom's mother and then by
other female relatives. Now the elder
brothers and elder male cousins of the
bridegroom each asks the bride, “What
IS your name, please ?" She gives her
name, and then the questioner sprinkles
water on her with a smalt mango leaf-stalk,
^ each man finishes this ceremonial da-
A>n?A» or sprinkling of water, he tdls the
bnde "From to-day regard me as your
Bau-honjhar (hu.sband's elder brother-^
whose loucJi is taboo ). Her Jmsbaod’s elder
sisters and elder female cousins tlicn puU

Taboo of IJusband*s Eldeir Broiheirs. 201

her by the cars and say, "Mind, from tliis
day regard us as your AJi-hansr”,

In some J&ghi clans such as tlie Murum,
Audi. Ludamba, Gcroa, and Taiyo, a second
stnduri rstab ceremony is now performed
in the fotlowing manner: The bride and
bridcgrooni stand on the tnajva; and Uic
bridegroom three times anoints oil on the
bride's forehead and puts vernuUon marks
on it as in tire ceremony

described above ( page ISS un/e); and the
bride similarly puts oil and si'ndfiJ* marks
tlircc times on the bridegroom's forehead.
Among the clan of Birhdfs, before

bride and bridegroom enter the hut, a fowl
is sacrificed in the courtyard and its blood
is sprinkled on the yoiuig couple. The
bridegroom’s motlicr draws with ricc-ilour
moistened . with water a chain of circular
figures from the dngan up to the door of
the hut On each circular figure is placed
a mango leaf on each of w'hich the bride¬
groom and after him the bride tread in
walking to the door of the hut. [n certain
clans, such as the Lupung or Bcherwar and

The Birhors,

the Bbuiya, mango leaves atiached to
their stalks arc spread from one end
of the dngfon (open space in front
of the hut) up to some distance in¬
side the hut- As the bridegroom walks
over each of these leaf-stalks, the bride
takes it up in one band and goes on
dropping water along her path from a jug
carried in the other hand-

In the evening, the bridegroom's father
treats his relatives and fellow-f'o^fl'pcople
to a feast and drinking at which two of
tlie elders in the manner already described
offer libations of rice-beer and offerings
of boiled rice to the ancestor-spirits before
llie assembled guests begin to eat and
drink. Before they begin to eat, the bride
stands before them with a large leaf-cup
filled with boded rice, and the
elders of the tsrtJa ask her, "Henceforth
will you always supply us with food in
this way ? If you promise to do so, we
shall cat this food at your hands ; -if not,
wc won't take it". The bride promises
to find food for them; and they all fall

The ArroW‘Sttootmg Ceretnotty. 20S

to eating. After washing their hands and
mouths, the guests take tobacco pow'der
mixed with lime and go to their respective
huts. Bridegroom and bride sleep in sepa*
rate huts that night

(XXVI [)—The Nir-nipir or Chauf hs^
Chouthi Ceremony.

Next morning both tlie bridegroom and
the bride change their turmeric-dyed
clothes wliich are then boiled in ^vate^
mixed with ashes, cleaned, and put out
to dry.’ After change of clothes, the bride
carrying on her head a basket contain lUg
about a score of day marbles and in her
hands a fotH filled with water and covered
over with a leaf-cup containing some
molasses, proceeds on the way to her
fatlier's fa^d. Her husband carrying
in his liands a bow and arrow and a leafy
mango-twig foUoivs her at some distauce.
As soon as the bride reaches the timils
of her husband's she puts down

on the ground the basket and the lota and

204

Titt Birhon.

begins to run in the direction of her
father’s At this her husband leaves

bis bow and arrow near the basket left
byfiis wife, and gives chase to her until
he overtakes her- Seizing hold of her hand,
he strikes her on her buttocks with the
mango-twig in his hand, and leads her back
by the hand to the spot where she laid
down her basket and where the women
oi tlic have in the meanwhile assem¬
bled. Arrived at the spot, tlie husband
takes up his bow and arrow, the wife takes
up the lofa of water covered over ivith the
cup of molasses, and the wife's
takes up the basket containing clay marbles.
The husband first shoots his arrow in the
direction of his fa«dd. All follow the
direction of the arrow. WJicn the hus¬
band and the wife reach the spot where
the arrow has fallen, the wife besmears
the check of her husband with a little
molasses, then washes away the marks with
a little water from her lofd^ She then picks
up tlic arrow and liands it over to her
husband. This process of shooting the

The Marbk-ihrowing Ceremmry. 20S

arrow and ptckin|< it tip and anointing
the checks with molasses and washing off
the molasses watli water, is repeated five
times, so that the hfth arrow takes them
near tlie biidcgrooin’s house.

Now the Lukiitidi stands beside the bride
with the basket of clay marbles in her hands,
and the bridegroom's Lickii>}di stands beside
him mth a basket of similar day marbles.
Tlic liusband first throwTs five day marbles,
one after another, at the bride ; but her
Liikiiff^i, by standing in front of her,
protects her from being liit. Now it Is
the wife’s turn to throw five clay marbles,
one after anotlier, at her husband ; and
she betra)';: no reluctance to do so. The
bridegroom’s however, by placing

himself before the btidegroom shields
him from being liit. Then the wife returns
to her liusband’$ hut carrying the basket
on tier licad and the husband follows her
witli his bow and arrow. Then tliey have
a bath of cold water; after which die
bride vi'ashes the feet of her husband.
Filially the couple together visit all the

The Birltors.

206

or splrit*scats in the viW 3 ge and
make jahsr ( obeisance ) at each

In this ChouthU'Chvuthi ceremony we
appear to find a reniiniscencc of a former
practice of testing the husband's valour
and skill, and a dramatic representation
of the respective duties of husband and
vTife to each other.

()—The PichhO-seter Ceremony,

Three or four days later, three persons
from lire bride’s fatlicr’s including

IJic teysfig or husband of the elder sister,
if any, of the bride,—come to the bride¬
groom’s place. On their arrival, the
bridegroom takes charge of tlieir sticks,
and the bride washes their feet. Then they
sit down and are given powdered tobacco
mixed with lime to refresh themselves
with. While chewing tobacco, they arc
asked by some elder of the bridegroom's
tandi ^,—“Where do you come from ?
Where arc you going ?" They reply,—
“We are come to tlicse parts to look for

T/ttf Pichhd-Sckr Cerentony, 207

strayed cattle (meaning, the bride). A
herd of catdc ( meaning, the bridegroom's
party) had gone to our parts from this
side. We had a sbe-calf. She joined
the herd and came away in this direction,
as we have found out by prognostication."
The first speaker replies,—"Look out for
your calf then; find her out, see whither
she may have gone." ^'Ah ! here she is",
cries one of the bride's relatives. “Well,
then", is the reply, “If she is your calf,
you may take her home".

After this pleasant bantering, the guests
are treated to dinner. Next morning, after
breakfast, they take the girl and her liusband
on a temporary visit to her parents, promi¬
sing to send tliem back after a stated
number of days. The boy's farher pays a
sum of eight annas to the bride’s people as
Kunutam-paisa towards the exi>enses of
the ATunrddm sacrifice.

205 Tke Birkon.

( xxTx )— ^The Kunutum Sacrtpice.

Two, three or four days later, the bride's
father sacrifices cither a pig or a goat,
according to the ancient usage of the
family, in honour of the whole body of
his ancestor-spirits. The atigar. is cleaned
by the bride with cowdung diluted in
water, and here the pig or goat, as the case
may be, is brought out, given some nnta
rice to eat and, while it is eating, its head
is broken by the bride’s father or otJicr
senior male member of the family by
striking (Htdm) the blunt side of an axe
against its head. While thus saerihclng
the anitnal, the sacrificer prays, "O I all
ye ancestors who are dead, lost or strayed
(goj^gur today 1 am

making this KUnHatn in your name for
this girl who lias been just married.
For her' 1 am making this sacrifice
purchased with money paid [by her hus¬
band's people]. Accept it [and bless her]."
The bridegroom with the help of one or
two young men now strips JofF the skin of

The Kitmiam Sacrifice.

209

the sacnficed animal, and chops up the
TTieat. The bride cooks rice and meat-
curry. When the guests all sit down to
dinner, thebride^s father or some other senior
relative says, **Look, my daughter's hus¬
band's people paid money for the KUnhlam
sacrifice, and witli tliat money the animal
was purchased. So, fall to, my brethren
and children, (referring to relatives of
different generations), and eat in celebration
of the KUniUam sacrifice”. It may be noted
that the bridegroom but not the bride,
is permitted to eat the meat of the head of
the sacrificed animal as it- is a sacrifice
to her 0 wi\ ancestor-spirits; and it is
believed tliat if she cats the meat, some
ancestor-spirit^of her fattier will follow her
to her husband’s place, in which case she
will have tn ofier periodical sacrifices to
the spirit, or else she will .suffer from
illness and other troubles.

210

77« Birhors.

(XXX)—Maroa-Puja.

Oil the day roUoiHng, the bride and bride-^
groom are taben back by the bridegroom's
father to his liouse. Tliere the latter has
to offer sacrifices to his ancestor-spirits.
In some clans, such as the jtfijpfinir, Bhwnifa
and Il^nthrom^ two goats are sacrificed
on the mafoa or mud-pulpit in the Ongan,
a /jcdiia or axe being used to decapitate
the animals. In other clans, such as the
Andi, only a fowl is sacrificed and that
by the hitam process, that Is to say, by
breaking the head of the fowl with the blunt
side of an axe. The sacrificcr prays to his
ancestor-spirits for the well-being of tlie
newly-wedd<*d pair. A feast follows. It
may be noted that although the newly
wedded young man may partake of the
meat of tJie head of the goat or fowl thus
sacrificed to his ancestor-spirits, his wife
niiiy not, A Birhof fetnaie may only par¬
take of the meat of the head of a fowl or
animal sacrificed in honour of a spirit
to which Jier motlier sacrifices and to

Band Sana.

2lt

which she may, and invariably does, sacrU
lice, but not the meat oF the head of animals
or fowls sacrificed to the spirits cither of
her father's side or of her husband's
side. Her husband, however, and her
daughters, but not her sons, may cat
the meat of the head of an animal or fowl
sacrificed to a spirit to which her mother
sacrifices and which has been liandcd down,
so to say, to her by her mother and has
become her manita hhiit,

( XXjc Baxa-Saxa.

As the Knnutam and Mdroa Pipa sacri¬
fices are meant to secure for the newly^
married young persons the good wishes and
help of the ancestor-spirits, so the Biina
Sana ceremony performed in the house of
the bridegroom after a marriage among the
Jaght Birkofs is meant to protect the
couple against evil spirits and super-
physical evil influences. This pro¬
tection is sought with the aid of tJie
beneficent spirits—the Burtt-hmga the

2t2

The

NagS-ErS f and the BsQhout spirit, A mystic
diagram as in Fig* £, (in the Plate opposite
page 153 ) is drawn on the ground in
the angan which has been cleaned with
water, and, it available, cow-dung diluted
with water. Black coal dust, red earth
and white rice-Hour arc the matcnals used
in drawing the lines and curves which
compose this diagram, the black standing
for the Bt^AoiU spirit, red for Nug£^-Em~
Bindi-Bra and the white for 5urit-lM)nffa.
The spirits thus represented in the diagram
are offered sacrifices of fowls of appropriate
colours and the sacrificer prays :—“Here
w'C liave brought a new person ( meaning,
the bride) for you [to protect]. From to¬
day may there be no fear (boro chirCJ in the
streams and the woods for tliis new person.
From to-day may there be no illness in
the stomach (inhif hsstij or in the head
fha-hasu^. May the new person f'noirf]
come out safe and sound from the [evil
attentions of ] evil spirits and powers of
the streams and woods”.

Thus, just as the A’/titjUani and the Afitp~n7

Batta Sana.

21S

p^a ceremonies complete the atnatgamalion
of the new bride with her husband's family
and by introdneing her to the family-

spirits and spirits and thereby ensuring
their good wishes aud friendly services,
so the BstisSsna rites are meant to
introduce her to the friendly spirits of the
hills and streams and jungles her hus¬
band’s country and secure for her their
protection against the evil spirits and evil
influences residing in those hilts and streams
and jungles.

CHAPTEI? VII.

Birthi Childhood And Puberty Customs.

When we pass from customs

relating to nuuriage to those attendant on
birth and death, we approach more closely
the religious ideas of the tribe.

The idea of life is one of conti-

nuous progress from stage to stage. At
each successive stage—from birth and
infancy through adolescence, youtli and
married stage, to old age,—the Birhvf
regards himself as gradually gaining jti
strength through increasing assodation u*ith
friendly spirits to combat supemahiral evil
influences and evil powers that surround
him on alt sides til! at length Death lands
him on to the highest stage of existence
when man is transformed into spirit—no
longer in dread of adverse supernatural
spiritual influences but himself powerful
to inducnce man for good and cdl alike.

Birth, Childhood attd Puberty Customs. 215

One main object of tlac cuslomaiy rites and
ceremonies observed by the Birhaf at tlic
passage from one state of life to another
woiild appear to be to relieve him from
some of the harmful spiritual inBuenccs
peculiar to the outgoing stage and apt to
cling to him in the new stage and infect
human beings who are in intimate touch
with him,—-to purify him and his surround¬
ings including his relatives,—to break all
ties with the old state and to assimilate
his nature to the new state of life he is
entering.

At no stage of life is a human being more
c:rposed to supernatural evil intiucnces than
white still in the mother's womb, at birth,
and during infancy. Many, therefore, arc
the precautions and rites that a pregnant
and parturient Birhdf rvoman, her family
and community arc required to obscn'c.

1.—Observances uurinu Precnancy.

The observances tliat Jiave to be attended
to during the pregnancy of a Birhfif wt>*

216

The Birhors.

man, appear to fall into ttirec classes, ^ —
tJiose meant to protect tbe motlrer and tlie
child ill the womb from dangers arising
from the spirit-world, those designed to
avert the evil eye and other deleterious
influences proceeding from human beings,
and lastly those Intended to avert dangers
due to physical causes. The first class of
precautions have to be taken sometimes
by tiie pregnant woman alone and some*
times by both herself and her husband, and
tlic other two by the woman alone. The
neighbours of the parturient woman have
also to observe certain precautions to avoid
the infectious tiiiits likely to proceed from
Iter,

To avoid danger from the spirit*worid,
the inmates of tlic house must abstain from
invoking any spirits and offering any sacri¬
fices in the house during the pregnancy
of a woman of the family, The head of an
animal or fowl sacrificed to the spirits
( other than her own ) is

always taboo to a Birftof^ woman. But
during his wife's pregnancy Jier husband

Ob^rvances during Pregnancy, 21?

loo must abstain from eating tbe litad of
an a n itnal or fowl sacrificed to any spirit
or tlie litjad of any animal or fowl obtained
by hunting. A breach of this taboo is
believed to endanger the whole community.
Should either the husband or the wife
eat such mcatt the men of the tmdtl
are sure to have ill success in htmting.
And to propitiate the spirits in such a
case, the husband must supply the
with one pig, two goats, and five fowls
to be sacrificed a little away from the huts.
Apart from this taboo against such flesh
diet, tjie Pir'Iiaf husband is not required
to observe any other rules of diet oi
behaviour during his wife’s pregnancy.
The practice of couvade is unknown. The
woman must take care not to lie down
ill the courtyard or other open space lest
spirits and a particular species of bird called
the Pwfii bird migiit fly across her body.
It is believed that should such spirits as
a Jfcftid or a Miikch flit across the woman,
the child in the womb will be cither slill-
bom or defonned. And tlic lUght of a

218

The Birhors.

Puni bird over lier body is believed to
injure some limb of the child in the womb
or cause Funi^dukh to it which will make
it pine away. Nor must the woman go
near rivers and streams where or

spirits of women who died during preg¬
nancy or in childbirth are supposed to
dwell. To avoid the evil eye, she must
cover her womb with a cloth while going
out of her house. To prevent the entrance
of dangerous influences, she must neither
toucli nor see a l;uman corpse, nor even see
tlic smoke rising from a funeral pyre.
She must therefore keep indoors when a
cremation is going on within sight of her
She must also keep indoors When
lightning flashes are seen and a peal
of thunder is heard. The prohibitions
against eating stale rice and against crossing
a river during pregnancy may be meant
merely to aVoid physical dangers; but it
is not unlikely that they arc intended to
avert certain super-phy 5 ic;il dangerous
intiucnccs as well.

Precautions against Difficult fMbour. 219

[i;—^D ifficult Labour,

Tlie Pirhor ascribes diilicuU labour eiUier
to the evil eye or to some sexual tran^cs-
sion on the part of the woman or to the ill-will
of some evil spirit. And for each of these
classes of impediments a different set of
remedies is adopted. To cotmteract the evil
eye as well as to ncutra]i 2 e the efiect of 'sins’
which are believed to hamper delivery, certain
magical rites are performed; and to propitiate
the obstructive spirits, sacrifices are offered,
In difficult labour, magical rites are first
tried, and, if these fail, the ghost-finder
or is consulted and sacrifices are

offered to the spirit who is supposed
to impede delivery. Among ma^cal rites
performed to facilitate delivery the following
may be mentioned:—If the woman during
her pregnancy happened to close the cover
of any earthen vessel or vessels with mud
or other similar substance, such covers
ore taken out. Or. if she happened to have
filled up with earth any holes or cracks
in tlic floor of her hut, these holes and

220

Thi Birhors.

cracks arc opened up again. If fhe&e fail
to bring about delivery, a handful of rice
is waved over the head of the pregnant
woniati in the name successively of each
supposed witch and then fried in an
earthen pan, Tf this too fails to remove
the impediment, the midwife mentally
names, one after another, each man who
might possibly have been in intrigue with
the woman and be the possible father of the
child in the w'otnb, and at each name throws
a grain of rice on her. It is believed that
as soon as the adulterer is named (mentally),
delivery takes place. It is said that the
ancestor-spirits of the family cause dlhicuU
bbour to an adulteress in order that her
guilt may be detected in this way. If all
these expedients fail to bring about a
speedy delh’cry, the ghost-hnder or matt
is sent for to find out by Uie examination
of a iiandful of rice the particular 5 |^t
which is hampering delivery, U it be a
spirit of an eshbUshed position to whcim
sacrifices arc ordinarily offered who is found
to obstruct delivery, a vow is taken of

predicting ilu Sex of a Child in the irowii 221

making the proper sacrifices in case of
speedy delivery, and if it be only a stray
spirit the takes up a handful of rice,
waves it round tlie head of the woman
and wliile naming the spirit in question
throws it away as if towards the spirit,

jii.—S ex and number of Unborn Babes,

If a woman grows thin during preg*
nancy, it is said she will bear a male child;
if otherwise, a female. Blackish knots in
the umbilical cord are supposed to indicate
the total number of male cluldrcn the
^voman will bear and reddish white knots
the number of female children,

IV,—The Birth,

When labour-pains come on, the men
leave the hut as their presence is belie!>'ed
to hinder delivery, and only a few women
remain. The woman w'ho acts as midwife
sometimes rubs oil over the womb to
facilitate delivery. One end of the hut

222

The Birhors,

is partitioned off to serve as the lytng-in
room and liere the delivery takes place.
Soon after birth a new door is opened at
that end for the use of the parturient woman
for a period tTirying amongst different elans
from one to six w'eeks. It is believed that
if she used the old door during the period
of impurity, two members of the family
would certainly die. The pathway from
this neW' door up to a little distance iS| by
most clans, fenced off on both sides w^ith
hedges made of branches of trees bo that
the shadow of the parturient woman and
the midwife may not fall on and pollute
or endanger their neighbours or their
I louses. These branches are burnt by the
midwife (kusrdm) after tJie first seven days
of impurity. In a few chins, such as the
MurUm, Andi and tlie ShamJhiAod (the
hist two of whicli are in origin of mixed
blood) no new door is opened j on the
other hand, in at least one of the wildest
of Uthla clans, an altogether separate hut
is erected for the motlier and her haby, and
tlie baby is horn without the help of any

CcreutottUi at birth.

Z2S

midwife or other person, and nobody visits
them there nor are they allowed to come
near others doting the peritxl of impurity.
If tlie placenti is delayed in coming out,
the root of a certain plant is suspended
from the woman's neck on a string. A
copper coin is held below the navel and
on this the navel string is cut with an
arrow-head or a razor. The navel string
and the placenta are now taken up in a
leaf-cup and buried just outside . the
threshold of the hut in a hole about a
cubit deep. The Blrhufs assert that the
reason why the after birth is tlius buried
and secreted is that should a dog or other
animal cat it up the mother will sicken and
die._ If this hole is deep, the difference
between the age of the present baby and
its next brother or sister tvill be long, and
if tlie hole be shallow, the difference will
he short The stump of the umbilical cord,
when it dries up and falls off, is also buried
just outside the threshold, but not so deep ;
it is asserted that should it be eaten up by
any animat, the child will sicken and die.

The Birhan.

224

If the stump of the navel string is buried
deep, the teeth of the baby, it is said, will
be late in appearing; but if the stump Is
biiried just below the surface, the baby
vwll teeth early.

As soon as a baby is bom, the midwife
rubs a mixture of oil, pounded turmeric
and powdered rice-husk over its limbs and
bathes the babe in tepid water. The
following day at about noon the mother
drinks water in which iuriAt pulse (DoUchoa
hijloivji) has been boiled. This is meant
to hasten the flow of milk at her breasts.
If this does not serve its purpose, recourse
will be had to the following rite; Tlie
following morning tlie husband of the
woman will bathe in some spring or streiim.
and come home with a jug of water wliicii
lie will place in front of his hut. A piece
of burning c liar coat is also sometimes placed
by its side, and over it a little gum of Hie
sal tree will be sprinkled.

The husband will then take up tlie jug
of Tvater in his hands anil slowly pour
the water, standing witli his face tovs'urds

Cermtmies at birth

S2G

the sun find saving,—"O StTij Bongtip 1 aiu
making this libation of water to Thee.
May milk Bow from her breast like this
[water I am pouring], 1 vow to oder
tlice ‘milk flower' when my desire is
fuhlled^ After the Tfiathi ceremony,
wliich will be described later on, tlie
husband will, with the same rites, offer
a libation of cow's milk on the same
spot, saying, “I offer this milk in fulfilment
of tlie vow i bmk while I poured water in
the name of (i. e., in place of) milk."

From the second day after delivery she
will be given a meal of hot rice and a soup of
Tohar {Ociganm Indicus) pulse every
evening.

On the day of birth,—or on the following
morning if the birth has taken place at
night,-^the men of the fn^d^ go out with
their nets for a hunt with a view to tilting
the future luck of the new-born babe,

*'Thii iafui cnpbp^n'ijnm ffir ‘cow*«inPk'.

226 The Birhors.

V.—The Days of Ceremonial Impcritv.

Generally for twenty-one days after birth,
mother and child are considered impure
or, to put it more correctly, remain in
the taboo state. In some clans the taboo
state continues longer. During this period,
the new-born babe and its mother are
secluded in a comer of the family hut
which is partitioned off from the rest of
the hut unless, as among the ifaipan clan,
a separate leaf hut is erected for the purpose.
In most clans, as we have already seen, a
new doorway is made for this portion of
the hut for the use of the parturient
woman and the midwife, and long fen->
cings of twigs are put up on both sides
of the patinvay leading to it. The meals
of the parturient woman are brought to her
up to this new doorway and she takes
them in, and, after having eaten her meals,
washes the pLite and puts it out to be
taken away. The female attendants at
birtli go out by tliis new door after the
delivery, take a purificatory bath and, in

Taboos at Birth.

some fparticularly, Jd^hi) ta^Jdss, have
their persons; sprinkled over with uTiter
ill which copper and leaves of the Tulain
( the sacred basil ) plant have been
clipped. During tlie firsl seven days
after a birth, the whole
the taboo stale, and during this period
no Pvjn or sacrificia! feast can be
celebrated in the funds at all; hid, as for
the family of the new-born babe, this taboo
against PujiisS lias to be observed by
them for three weeks longer. By tray of
a til real to evil spirits that may otherwise
Jiarm the baby or rts mother, the iron
instrument, if any, with which the navel-
string may have been cut, or a sickle or a
knife, is placed under the clotJi or other
thing which serves as their pillow. This
instrument is taken away by llic midwife
on the occasion of the fAof/it ceremony
on the scvcntli day after birth, and is
replaced by a new knife or sickle. After
the days of impurity are over, this instru¬
ment is laid out in the open during a lunar

228

The BirhQrs,

eclipse and fniaU^ made into an anklet or
armlet which is to serve as an amvilct to
protect the child frotn the evil eye or evil
Spirits,

vj.—T he OR First Purification,

The tliotki ceremony, celebrated on the
seventh day from the date of the birth, is
meant for the final purification of tlic other
members of the taiida and the preliminary
purification of the newborn child and its
mother and of the other members of the
particular lamlly. Until then, as we liave
seen, there can be no in the td^da.
On tlie fMfW day, men of tlve child's
clan living in the have their nails

pared, and their beards and the edges of
the hair round the head shaved. The
women of the dan also will have their nails
pared, the nails of the mother of the baby
being pared last of all. Finally the baby
will have its head shaved. This shaved-oti
hair of the baby is considered unclean
fchhit) and is taken in a leaf-cup to the

The Th^illti Ci:r£tnQtty. 229

side of some tank or stream and left there.
Then the men, and, after them, the women
go out for a purificatory bath. The mother
with the midwife, who has in the mean-
while covered the floor of the lying-in room
tvitli a coating of mud diluted in water and,
on the new pathway between the fences, a
coating of cowdung diluted in water, brings
up the rear. The clothes used in the lying*
in room are boiled that morning in water
mixed with ashes. The palm-leaf mat and
the bedstead, if any, used in the lying-in
room arc taken to a stream, immersed in
water for a whole day, anointed with a
little oil and pounded turmeric and taken
back to the lying-in room for use until the
final purification on the hventy-first day
after the bjrtli or later.

The mother of tire baby returns home
\vith water dripping from Uie fiair of her
iicad and squeezes out a little of this water
into the mouth of her baby, accompanying
her action with a blessing on the child. If it
is a male child, she says,—“May you never
Jed thirsty wiien you go out for a hunt or

230

The Bifhors.

arc ctiiiaf'ccl in making ropes"? and, if it
is a female ddld, she says,—"May yon
never feel thirsty when you may be gather¬
ing leaves and tubers in the jungles'’.
W'hen all return home after bathing, Hie
babe’s motlier washes the legs and feet of
licr husband, anoints them willi oil and
turmcriopaste, again washes tiie legs from
below the knees, and Uicn clasping one
of his le^ with her hands asks Iiim,—"What
will you give me" ? The husband either
presents her with .a new doth or promises
to give her one. She now bows down to
her liusband by touclung lus -fcct, and from
a distance makes obeisance to the elders of
the assembled before her hut,

Then tlie with his face to the cast,
olVurs a red fowl to CAoipriia* Puhar Parhal
(the eighty*four hills and mountains ) who
arc invoked by name and believed to assem¬
ble nl Iht invocation, and one black fowl
to Aluhtilt Cftati { who is said to be the
mistress of the spirit of LuffH P^ulr ),
Tlif fowls are held with tlidr faces to Hie
east. While sacriJicing each fowl the

The Thathi Cereitiony.

231

N(!ffa says, “! offer tJiis fowl in tht; name
of the new Jiuman being that lias come 1o
us. May health attend the baby and good
luck in chase attend tiic people of the
tati4a.” At each of the two spots where
the two Fowls are sacrificed, the still

facing cast, drops a litle ricc-becr from a
leaf-cup. It is believed that unless these
sacrifices are offered, the birtli-taboo will
continue and the men of the tWidi will
have bad luck in the chase. The
gets the two sacrificed fowls as liis remuner*
ation and he roasts them tlien and there.
After tiic sacrifices have been offered, a
pot of oil is passed round amongst tlie
guests. Each guest dips the tips of his
lingers in the oil whicli he rubs over his
face, and also into his cars. The assem¬
bled guests are then treated to two jars
of rice-beer. Before they begin drinking,
the eldest member of the elan takes up
in his hands a leaf-cup filled with rice-
beer and makes a figurative speech as
follows:—^**A wind arose In the east
clouds gathered in the vvcsl j rain

Titc BirhoYi.

canrc down on the ground ; Uic lank
(hmdh) got filled to the brim. When the
tank vins full, w'c wondered whether the
tank contmned a crocodile, or a fijh, or a
snake. Then tltc embanluncnt burst, and
we discovered it contained a human child.
Now then we sJiall take it into our
( tribe ). May the cltild live up io a hoary
( Ut,, white ) old age (rel pSiiju nU9
panftt}"* ^Uter having done justice to
tJio two jars of rice-beer, the guests
return to their respective houses.

VII.^THE CHHOTA THHATHtli.

Generally on Uic twenty-first day after
birtli, but in some ctaos bter, the final
purification ceremony is performed. The
mot her of tlie hahy boils in water and ashes
Illy ctotiies hitherto used by the mother
anti babe in the lying-m room, and anotlicr
woman of the family similarly cleanses tlic
clothes of the otJier mcrobers of the family j
and in every family in the some

wontm similarly cleanses the clotliea of the

Plato XXV.—Tvpes of BirliSr
children (mole)

1 > *•

1 : '

-^1

* - - 1 "

t *f

**ri

The CSthota TiiatlU Ceretnany, 233

of licr family. The baby's head
is shaved, and the mat used by the baby
and its mother is cast aside. The new
door of the lying-in rootn is tlien dosed
up, the whole house is deansed with
mud or covvdung diluted in water, and all
the tnembers of the family take a cere¬
monial bad]. The head of the family
offers the sacrifice of a red fowl and a
libation of rice-beer to the spirits of hU
ancestors and prays for the health and
longevity of the baby. The mother with
die baby in her arms goes to the thhim or
spirit-seats of her husband's family and then
to the dihStts of the other families of the
td[i4^ and bows down to all the ghosts of
all the thh&ns.

VIII.—The or Name-civisg

CEREMOhTY.

On die morning following tlic Chhatd
tby, a name is sdecled for the
child in the following manner. A bowl of
water is placed on tlie open space in front

. 354

Tin Birhors.

of the hut which has been besmeared with
tnud dituted in water, and where tlic men of
the assembled A handf ul of rice

and a blade of tender grass (d^) are placed
on the ground as safti or witnesses to the
ceremony• A grain of (sesamum) seed
to represent tlie baby is first dropped into
tire water of the bowl, and then a grain of
or vnhushed rice representing the
jjatemal grand-father {whether dead or
alive) of the baby is siinilarly dropped into
the same bowl. If the seed and the
grain of dliUn float on till they meet, the
baby Is named after his paternal grand'-
fattier, tf they sink down without meeting,
the process is repeated with a *i^-secd
representing the baby and grains of dA^
to represent other relatives one after another
until Ihc grains meet. The name of the
rcLilivc in whose name the grains meet, is
selected for Uie child. If the relative
whose name is selected is alive and present,
lie aiiaints the child with oil and presents
if with one or tnx) copper coins and a

tim Name-Giving Ceremony. 23S

nucklct of black beads. This man is
called Uw Saki (sponsor) of the child. U
the sflH is a person who docs not belong to *
the family, he is treated to a hearty dinner
that day witii plenty of liquor from a jar of
rice-beer called the sskt’hiD^if which lias
been specially brewed for the purpose.

On this day, a mdii utters some incan¬
tations over a few grains of mustard which
arc then tied up in a rag and fastened with
unbleached thread round the neck of the
baby. This serves as an amulet to protect
the baby from the evil eye and evil spirits
and is worn until the ear-pierciog ceremony.
The Birhof believes that a man always
takes after his sski. Ttius, if one’s is
a wMij he too will turn out to be a mstr;
if one’s sat* has married only one wife,
he too will have no more ttian one wife, but
if the said lias married two or three wives he
too will do the same, tf the name selected
is that of a relative (such as the babe's father s
elder brother) whose name is taboo to the
baby’s motJicr, a second name—-soiue-
times derived from the day of the week on

236

Tlie Bitfion.

which the cliild was bom^ts also selected.
As a matter oJ fact, however, I found almost
every Birhef having two, and, in a few cases,
more than two names. Out of eighteen
Btrhof whose saH names I particularly
noted, twelve were named after their
paternal grandfathers, one after his paternal
great-grandfather, four after their maternal
grandfathers and one after his father's
cider brother. One of these only had
no second name, that is to say, no name
other tlian his sdki name. Their names
are given below

SnJti- Other

name. name.

Bidha
Narsitiff Ler^j

Mangold

Akal

Bd)ru Gtdniaha*

Sukhlat Uja,
Chahda Bmda.

Bhdi^airi
Bolaram Gadi,

Iih\m Axi^etu

Sski-

Other

name.

.^O&DOf

OuiKcda.

Raid

&snu;Atrrw3,

Furati

(no other

name),

5uifcAram

Birsst

Langra.

SiiTiua

Akal.

BudJiU

Ssona,

Ririi

AfioAu.

Mahudeo Jeredpetm^

Pluto XXVI.— Tjpe8 of Bil liSr
childrcn (fcmnle).

Persanol Hawes.

Where a man has another name besides
his eiAi name, he is ordinarily called by that
other name. In the case of twin children,
if both arc male, they arc generally named
'RSm' and 'Laclnoan’ respectively; if
boUi are female they are named 'G£n^'
and 'Jauni'; and if one of the twins
is a male and the other a female, the
male child is named either or

‘Lachman' according as it happens to be
the elder or the younger of the twins, and
similarly tlie female child is named either
*G^gi' or ^auni' according as it is tlie
elder or the younger of the twins. But the
si&i ceremony will be duly gone through
and names selected as usual.

IX.—^The Tukui-lutur or Ear-piercing
Ceremony.

The ears of the child are ceremo^
nialiy perforated generally in the
month of dghon { November ) follow¬
ing the birtli. A quantity of rice-flour is
prepared andmadc into twenty-eiglit small
round cakes. Tlicsc arc each covered over

The BtKhors,

ivith one sa? leaf above it and one below it,
and are placed one above the otJier in a
vessel of boiling water on the night before
the ceremony. The following morning,
tfie child is anointed witli oil and
pounded turmeric and bathed in cold ^vnte^.
The or, in his absence, some other
relative is seated on a wooden plank fgsniu
or fnnfhii) which has been placed over a
quantity ( usually two paSsa or about
four pounds ) of unhusked rice. The
child is seated on the lap of this rcla.
tivc. Two other men sit down each
on one side of the child with a copper
hanaim (car-piercing needle) in hand
and pierce a hole each in the lobe of one
ew of the child. Then each of the two ear*
piercers take up a black fowl and strikes
it twice against the wooden seat (gSn4ii),
aoas to kill it. The fowl thus kiilcd is
taken inside the kitchen and roasted.

A bamboo umbrella is then .stuck up
over the ^vooden stai. One of the
ear-picrcers throws seven of the cakes
lo tJic roof of the hut. the oilier

The Ear-boring Cermony. 239

ear-piercCT throws on the ®me root tlic
lag containing mustard seeds which was
so long tied round the neck of the
child; as he does so, he says;—“From
to-day the child is taken into thei« (tribe).
O ! Spirits and ghosts, do yc henceforth
leave him.” Tw’o or three boys who have
already perched themselves on the roof eat
up the seven cakes w'hich are said to be
‘meant for the first seven days of impurity'.
Tlie boys then come down. Now the saK
or somebody on his behalf takes up one
cup of oil, and some relative of the child
liolds in his hand another cup of oil,and
each in his turn anoints every one present
with the oil. Each guest has also brought
with liim one small earthen pot of oil
besides two or three of unhusked

rice. This rice is placed on the wooden
scat (gawdu) and the oil is dropped on the
liead of each guest, till at length oil begins
to drip down the limbs of all pnsent.
This is known as 'safa-oil’. Tivo jars of
rice-bcer along witli die remaining twenty-
one cakes of rice-flour are now distributed

240

The Biriton,

amongst the goeste. After eating the cakes
and drinking the rice-becr, the gvesfs
disperse.

By the boring of the ears, the child, as
we have seen, is snposed to enter the jai
or tribe. Some BirHfi expressed their
idea about the matter to me with this quaint
simile:—

“Just as castration admits a bull into the
jSl (rf oxen, so by the ear-boring ceremony,
a Sirhof child, until then merely a human
child, is admitted into the jst or tribe."

So essential is this ceremony considered
by the Birltof that a child dying before
the ceremony is performed, must have its
ears pierced after death and before being
carried to its grave.

XI.—Some Childhood Customs.

When a child lias one or more teeth
behind the front row, some one tells the
child"We married you to the dog of so-
(names some neighbour who keeps a
dog)." It is believed that this will serve

Childhood Cushms.

241

to make the extra teeth fall o£f at the same
tim e as the milk teeth.

When a child is observed to be graduaily
wasting away, it is said to suffer from pmi'
daddy, and is laid down by its mother early
one morning before the house has been
sw'cpt clean, on the open space in

front of the hut, and some other woman
takes it up in her arms saying, “Alas ! Alas !
why has such a fine child been cast away t*'
It is believed that this serves in most cases
to restore the cliild to health, if this expe¬
dient fails, the child is expected to be cured
by being weighed in a balance. It is again
weighed after a montli or two to sec how
much it has gained in weight.

So long as a baby is carried in the
mother's arms or slung on Irer back, its
mother, while going to some other tandd or
to some village or market-place, cither puts
a mark of soot between its eyebrows to
protect it from the evil eye or evil spirits,
or, wJiilc crossing a stream, she generally
takes up a little sand, and lies it up at one

r/ii’ Birftors,

242

end of her cloth. On her return journey,
u-Iien lier house is tti sight, she takes the
sand between the tips of her two ftngers
and llirows it away behind her back,

XI,—ClCATKfZATION AND TATTOOING,

liirhor boys of about twelve or tJiirtcen
years of age bum scalds on each otlicr^s
fiands uilb Hglitecl ivjcbs. No bad effects
of any sort are said to result from the
omission of this practice which is now
looked upon only as a teat of the power of
titanly endurance. It is liowever different
in the case of the tattooing ot girls,

iJtrhof ^Is of from ten to twelve years
of age must have tattoo marks made on their
arms, chest, chin, no,sc and the upper side
of feet, witli an iron needle. No Littoo
marks arc made either on the forehead or
llic temples as amongst the Orsons. Where
possible, a JfilhsU Of Ghost woman is called
in to make the talloo marks. Floral designs
arc commonly used ft is believed that

Dormitorks for the Unmarried. 243

if a girl is not tattooed^ her spirit will on
tier death remain in the other ii<orld (h'dA)
under a ssmar tree clasping its trunk wth
both the arms.

xri.—L ife in the Dormitories.

In a Birk&r fai}4S there arc two small
huts made o( leaves and
(ft) Tho buldia?- branches of trees, which
are used, one as the
doniitory or GitiJ-ofS for bachelors, and
the other for spinsters. The two Jiuts are
situated generally at one end of the-settle¬
ment and at a little distance from each
other. Tlie maidens of the gather

twigs and branches for making Uieir dor¬
mitory and their parents and other relatives
construct it. The bachelors gather the
materials for the construction of their
dormitory and they and their relatives
consbnet it. These huts arc fairly com¬
modious and vary witli the size of Uic
settlement. The boy's domilory lias only
one door to it, but tlic maiden's dormitory

The Birkots.

is j^ener^Iy provided with a second door
at die back.

Boys are admitted into their dormitory
when they are about ten years old and
sleep there at night until
niatriage. When a
Itaueoiuat boy is ilUlITIGdp lie ilB;S
a separate hut made lor
htToself and his wife. Similarlyi ^irts are
admitted into their gitij-oj-a at the age of
about ten and sleep there at night until
marriage. In the boys' dormitory there
is no recognized lieadman, although the
most intelligent and tactful amongst the
inmates is recognized as their leader. In
the maidens’ dormitory, an old widow ot
tlic settlement acts as the guardian of the
inmates at night She sleeps close to the
main door ^ if to prevent the intrusion
of outsiders into the dormitory and to keep
watcti over the movements of the girls.
Although iwst-nuplial immorality is
practically unknown among the Biy^jrs,

fO HoraEtTin ‘'etween bachelors

tLo Sornutorics spinsters are the rule

Promritfil Moralify. 245

rallicr than tbc exception. The back¬
door to tlic maidens’ dormitory is
supposed to enable Uie girls to go out
to satisfy calls of nature without disturbing
the old duenna, in practice, however, tJiia
door affords means of escape to boys wJio
may have entered the hut during the
absence of the old woman and also enables
girls to stealthily go out to meet their lovers
who notify tlieir approach by sonae prccon*
certed sound generally made with the hands
striking the leaves and branches forming
the wall of the hut. The old woman, even
if awake, prelends to be asleep and tlius
connives at these practices. Every bache¬
lor has his sweetheart amongst the maidens.
And I am informed by some Birhof elders
that to attract a maiden he loves, a young
man somebmes approaches her witJiout
any clothes on liis body.

There is, however, no trace of seKuat
communism. On tlie other tumd, there
appears to exist a welUrecognbied
rule of fidelity amongst Birhur spinsters
and bacliclors. It is considered iSTong for

246

The Birfiors.

any boy to go with a maiden who is known
to be the sweetheart of another boy; and
although such a breach of etiquette is not
punished with a fine, the aggrieved boy has
the support ot his fellows when he seeks
to retaliate by himself sleeping with the
recognized sweetheart of tlic offending
boy. In tlieory, liaisons between unmar*
ried boys and girls are believed to offend
the spirits and bring ill*luck in hunting.
But the only result of this theory is to
bring perquisites to the Mati and tjic
IfOifS Of priest, hor in order to avoid
detection and disclosure by the Matt
{ diviner ) the young men give him
some money presents while they give
the Some money to buy a piece of
cloth, liquor and fowls so that he may
appease the offended spirits who would
otherwise prevent success In hunting.
Occasionally, supposed spirjt'possession is
made a pretence by a young man to go
with his sweetheart. Thus it sometimes
happens that wiien a young man meets
Jtis sweetheart at a market, he begins to

Prcrnnritai Sexual Morality, 247

shake his head violently and in this condi¬
tion of supposed spirit-possession carries
off the young woman in his arms in the
direction of some jungle. The hy-standers
merely remark that some spirit is on him
and no harm is meant.

The premarital of a BirJior woman

are so lightly thouglit of that no Birkor lias
the slightest objection to marry a girl whom
he knows to have been the sweetheart of
another young man. Thus, in a certain
Birhor settlement, I know tliree men, B, R,
and S, who during their bachelorhood were
inmates of tlie same dormitory. F, K, and
M were the inmates of the ^Lnsters
dormitory in the same settlement. During
this period, B had F, R had K, and S liad
M for their respective sweethearts. Later,
R was married to F, and K and M were
married to men of other
in his bachelor days used to regard F as tlic
recognized siveetheart of B, is on the best
of terms with her now as tiis own marrierl
wife although B lives next door to him.
Neither R nor B tior F appears to tiiink
anything of their former relations.

248

The Birhors.

VVlien any inconvenient consequencesi
follow a prenjaritat intrigue, recourse is had
to certain medicinal roots to cause abor¬
tion (^M), But occasions for this are
few and far between.

Thus the Men's House and Spinsters'
House, which at one time must liave been
effective organizations for purposes of sexual
s^'S^egation no longer effectively serve that
end among the BirhUfs, Nor do any
initiation or other ceremonies appear to
be connected witli the institution among
the tJiat I have come across.

J^trr.—'M enstruation Customs.

The menstrual condition of a female is
believed to be attended with danger to
herself as well as to Jver settlement. This
is true both of the first menses of a girl as
also of her subsequent menstrual periods.
A menstruant female is taboo to the whole
community. She may not touch her hus¬
band or any other person for one whole
week from the commencement of every
menstrual How. During tJiis period* she

Mcnsiruatioft Cttsiojns. 249

may not cook food or draw water, nor
even touch any food or drink meant for
others; she must not touch the walls or
the roof of her own or any one clse's hut;
she must not come in contact with the
spring or well where her tibe-fcllows
bathe or from which they draw water;
she must not sit on the same mat with any
other person nor enter any house except
her own ; she may not touch a bed, but
most lie down by herself on the bare ground ;
she must not touch fire, although she may
look at it; and she must not walk across
a hunting-net, It is apparently the sup¬
posed dangers of blood that give rise to
these restrictions. Blood is the pabulum
which gives nutriment to the spirits, and tlie
sight of blood naturally makes the spirits
restive. That is the avowed reason why
a me ns truant w'oman is not permitted to
enter tlic spirit-huts of the village or even
the ading or inner tabernacle of her own
hut where ihe ancestor-spirits are believed
to reside. During this period not only
may there be no racrificc or offered

250

The BirJsoTS.

to the OfS-birngsho (hoasc-sptiits) in the
menslniant woman's hut but in fact there
n'illbeno puja or sacrifice in.any family
in the settlement The reason whicJi the
BirhUf^ now asalgn for this proiiibition Is tlie
fact tixat in the event of any sacrifice being
offered in the settlement^ the members of
the menstruant female's family would frnve
to go without their share of the sacrificial
meat. Indeed, if in ignorance of the fact
that a female in the tdn^s is in lier menses,
any Birhor In the offers a sacrifice

to his own home'splrits ford bongako), the
menstruant female and, in case she is
married, her husband must not partake
of any portion of the sacrificial nieat or
any food cooked in the new earthen pot
used in preparing the sacrificial food.
Should they do so they are liable to be
afflicted with some serious illness. Should
a menstniant woman touch a man even
by accident, the latter is, it is believed, sure
to fall ill. Ill the case of the Idembrvnt
and Jfhnya clans of BirhSr^s it is believed
that if a menstruant female of either of

Dangers front the Mettsiruai Blood. 2S1

tiiose clans touches a man even by chance,
the husband of the woman is sure to die
either of illness or by a fall from a tree or
by being devoured by a tiger set on by
some spirit, and if she infringes any of
the other taboos mentioned above, two
individuals of her clan will be carried aw-ay
by death.

These taboos are removed on the eighth
day when the woman has become ceremo-
nially clean by taking a bath and ha\nng
her clothes boiled in \rater mixed wHth
ashes and then washing them in cold water.

She is once more restored to her normal
condition and is free to pursue her normal
avocations until the same supernatural
dangers connected with blood reappear
with the nextiy monthly course.

CHAPTER Vin.

Death and Funeral Custoins.

i . Ideas of Death and Soul,

The supematurU evil influences and evil
beint's against whom the Birhor has to

Oririu rf

Dsath length put an end to timt
life. For Death, unless
caused by violence, is believed by the
Birhor to be caused by some evil spirit
cither at its own instance or at the iosti-
gation of some person who knows the art
of egging the spirits on. In olden days,
it is sajd, meant only a temporary

separation of tJie soul or rather souls from
the body. It was only by a trick of a
(in^um ( a species of centipede ) that Death
came to mean a pennanent severance of
the soul from the body. The traditional
Birhor story of the origin of Death is as
follows:—A Birhoft wiio was dead, revived
as usual, and, after having batlied in a

TrmitHoual Origm oj Death. 25J

strenin, was returning home, when on his
way he met a IhudwRi, The crafty ftVtJunt
barred his way and told him, "Count ray
'legs' first, and then you will go home".
The man agreed and began to count the
legs of the when it moved a

few steps forward and the man Jiad to
begin counting the legs over again. And
again before he had finished counting,
the moved a few steps back¬

wards, and the man liad to begin counting
once more. This trick the went

on repeating so that the man could never
finish his task and walk back home.
Since then the dead do not return to

life. The nrnfiHf or shade af the deceased
is, however, ceremonially taken to its old
home where it is enshrined as an ancestor
spirit, and receives for its nutriment daily
offerings of food and drink and periodiaU
sacrifices.

Besides this shade, wliich joins the
invisible spirit world that in terpen ctiatcs
this visible ivorld of ours,
a man lias two souls—a

254

The Birhors.

male one and a female one. These remam
united in death as in life, and, when they
Hnally lose their present body by death, are
roincarnated together tn a new body.

When a person dreams dreams, the male
soul goes out of the body and visits dificrent
persons and places, while
Steuu the female soul, it is said,
remains in charge of the
body, "just as his wife is left in charge
of the hut or encampment when a Bi/rhar
goes out to hunt". So long as the male
soul does not come back, tlie body Is
said to be sleeping, but when it is unusually
long in returning, the female soul too goes
out in search of her mate leaving the body
dead. Some mdfis or spirit^doctors are
credited with the power of calling back
the truant souk and thus restoring Life
through the aid of their familiar spirits.
Sometimes the spirit or spirits who take
away the souls do so with no evil motive,
but only with a view to
kiking heffSri or forced
labour from them as land-

255

Temporary OeatlL

lords in Cliota Nagpur take begari from
their raiyats or tenants. And consequenUy
when a Birhor dies in the jungles

during a storm the cliances are IJiat
the deatli may be only temporary.

Higli wind^ lightning and rain are said
to be the indications of the progress of a
marriage procession of the spirits accom¬
panied by illumination and the explosion
of rockets and other dre-works such as
is customary in the wedding processions
of wealthy Hindus. And when the spirits
going in such a procession see a human
being out in the jungles they may make
his souls join the procession and act as
torch-bearers or the tike. In such a case,
tlie spirits on their return journey send
back the souls to the body and the man
revives. That is why some Birhofs post*
pone for tliree or four days after death
die cremation or burial of a man dying
through exposure in a storm. One of my
Birhdr friends gave me a vivid description
of a marriage procession of the spirits
Which lie fancied he saw white overtaken

256

The Birhors.

in a jungle during a storm, tk described
how the shado\.vy palanquin-bearers, torch-
bcarers, and musicians passed over his
head in bright array till the illumination
dazzled his eyes and tJie phantoms
vanished. This Birkof summctl up hts
ideas about Deatli in the following words:—
“The man is the soul of his dwelling-
place (kumha or leaf-hut^. The body of
the man is the dwelling of his souls.
When the souls are in trouble, people say
the body is sich. As a hut goes to ruins
when the owner desert it, so the body is
said to die when tlie souls leave it."

After the two souls—male and female-
leave the body, they are born again in a
new body. The souls of
Sp-UrtL a deceased Birhdr need
not always be re-bom in
his owTi tribe, Thus, on the very day that
the Nnya of a certain Btrhof settlement
died, a son was bom to a man of the Kunni
caste in a neighbouring village. And the
sou of the deceased Birhd^ and all his
people seriously assured me that the Kunui’s
son is the reiiicamalion of their old Nayii*

The Acco^nmodatiott oj ike sick. 2S7

[[, Ik Serious Illness.

Hastening tlte dcatli of tlie aged and
Ihc sick as well as the abandonment or
premature burial or ere-

The Aee«m- mation of the dying arc
unknown. When an
i7|fWit Bir/idf becomes
very old or seriously ill, his family in
order to spare him the trouble of knocking
about, settles down for a time at some
suitable place and is said to become Juffhi
for the time being. A .BirAor, whether
or UtAlu, sufifering from some serious
illness is generally taken to the spirit-hut,
if there is one in his faiida, and kept there
until recovery or death. The idea seems
to be that the inHuential spirits of tJic
settlement may overpower or scare away
the spirit that has caused the sickness.

A mail or spirit*doctor is called to find
out the particular spirit which has caused

Tho Spirit sickness and the

4oct«v ofiEerings required to rid
the patient of its evil
17

The Birkon.

2CS

attentjons. The squab on tiic floor
and begins to mutter hb Invocations and
shake bis Iicad violently till at Icngtli he
proclaims the name of tfic spirit that has
caused the sickness and the means to be
employed to appease or expel it.

If it is some or spirit of the

house or family of the sick person, that is

Siiiitoftho for the sick-

];0^3e. ness, tfie number and

colour of I he fowls re¬
quired to propitiate it are declared by tlic
mrtfi, and offerings are accordingly made
fay some member of the family.

If the msti names some bMt or spirit of
some otlier family, the sacrifices required
. . , to appease it arc brouglit

them up in his liands,
waves them one by one over the head of the
sick person, feeds the votive fowls with
ftftts rice, and puts them by for the moment
and, at dead of night, Likes tlieni stealthily
near the hut of the family wliosc bhut is
responsible for tfie sickness, sacrifices them,

Foreign Spirils.

2S9

and, leaving them there, comes away.

If it is a foreign (upiiriif) spirit not
belonging to tlie the nxnU declares

tlie direction from w])ich it
• has come and the number
(generally one) and colour

of fowls required by it. The required
fowl being brought to liim he smears
vermilion on its forelicadt waves it tlirce
times round the body of tlie patient and feeds
it on a litQe rice placed over the hands of
the patient. As the fowl eats the grains
of rice, the niafi exhorts the spirit to leave
the patient, saying, "So long thou hast
troubled this^ person. To-day we arc
offering thee sacrifices; do thou leave
him and give him no further trouble.
Tills ceremony is called n^ochhdns. Ihe
mari then takes up the fowl, and with one
or two companions goes vrith it in the
direction from which the spirit is supposed
to liave come. As the niflri leaves the hut,
llie patient throws out the rice left in Ins
Itands iu tlie direction in which the
goes. Arrived at tJiu boundary line

r/ie Birhors,

3611

between the Birhof" and the adjoining
village, the fusti sits dowTi with his face to
the cast and makes three marks with
vermilion on the ground where the fowl
is placed. He next drops a little rice
over the head of the fowl which cats it
up. He then kills the fourl by twisting
its head and severing it from the body.
The severed head is placed over the
vermilion marks, and blood from the body
is dropped there by the mati ivhile he says,—
"We now offer this ( blood ) to thee. Do
not come to so-and-so’s ( naming the sick
person ) house again. Taluk be on thy
mother if thou sHoiildst come again,"

The viati then gets up antf stands with
fiis legs apart. Now bending low he
throws the body of the fowl backwards
through his legs in the direction from
which the spirit is believed to Iiave come.
Then the jh«(* micturates into a leaf-
cup and pours the urine over the head
of the fowl .saying, '^^Here ts liquor for
thee. Do not come again to the sick
j’crson . The body of the fowl is taken

Sffln'Hj? away Foreign Spirits. 26/

away by the and his companion and
is cooked and eaten by them.

Thus, whereas spirits of the tUtida arc
propitiated by sacrifices, these outside
spirits arc conducted out of live settlement
by promises of sacrifices and are then scared
out of the f3>>ds by threats and ad|uratioos.
In fact, these spirits are considered to be
so amenable to fear that the wfib' sometimes
steeps in the patient's hut with a cane or
a stick by his side ; and when in a dream
he fancies he has met the spirit, he at
once lumps up, cane in Iiand, and chases
the spirit out of the faada.

in. The L-xst Ceremonies.

When a /hV/wr is at his last gasp, fiis son
or wife puts a little water into his mouth*
Then all present stand
Faeilitatliiff aside or walk out of the
hut leaving the door open,
so that the departing souks
may not meet with any ob-struction in
llicir wrav. Sometimes her necklaces, arm-

262

The Birhor$,

lets, anklets and similar ornament$ art:
taken off the Jimbs oi a dying woman to
facilitate the escape of her souls.

SometimeSj Imwever, immediatety after
deatli, a powerful is called in who mut'
ters invocations to persuade

tSfDSfa5t& familiar spirit

Swl (sakti-hhSt)iQ call back the

departing souls and restore
the dead to life. The lays down the

dead or dying person in a shed erected
near tire or seat ol his scLkti^hhut,

bums incense, offers sacrifice and goes on
muttering appropriate invocations.

As soon as the people stand aside to
make way for the departure of the souls
of the dying man, liis
WftUinj relatives, particularly bis

\vife and children, rend
the air with loud cries of lamentation
which continue until the corpse is taken
out of the hut. It is believed that if this
is not done the departed souls will grumble
at the thought that nobody felt sorry
for their departure from tlie world, whereas

Deatfi-PoUiitioH. 2<SJ

if there is much wailing, tlic souls on
joining the denizens of the underworld rvill
tell them with great self-satisfaction that it
was with ejttreme difficulty that they escaped
the importumties of their surviving relatives
who wanted tlicm to stay. flic wailiJig is
repeated on the occasion of the
ceremony, though with less demonstration
and only by women.

The hut in which death takes place is
deemed to be infected witJi death-pollution
fffehi-iQtdm). When the
Deith-poUutioiii- corpse is taken out of tlic
hut, all water, cooked food,
ashes in tlic hearth, burning charcoal or
other fuel, are thrown away. Even the
spirit-hut is considered infected with death-
poll ution when death occurs in it. But
whether a person dies in the spirit-hut or
in his own hut, all the clay and wooden
representations of spirits in and just out¬
side the spirit-hut as also the spirit-box
(hongii'^ti) or tube in which ingredients for
sacrifices are kept, arc thrown away and
replaced by new ones, and sacrifices are

264

The Birhors,

ofiered to these newly*made spiril-5gures
in order to free the spirit-hut from pollution.

Wherever a Birhor may liappen to die,
two earthen vessels, one In which rice used
to be cooked and the other in which
vegetables used to be cooked, are taken
out of the deceased's hut and laid, bottom
upwards, in front of it until the or

sliaying ceremony. This is intended to
notify the occurence of a deafii in tJic
family. When the pall-bcarers return
home after burial or cremation, all old
fires in the faTida are extinguished and
the cinders and aslies in the hearths of
alt the iiouses in the are thrown

away, and every' BirJior in the settlement
takes a hatli. Tlien a new fire is kindled
in some hut by the friction of two piece.-;
of Wood, and alt the other families in the
tsnda light their tires from it. If a death
has taken place at or before meai-time, no
Birhor in the settlement, except little
children, may take any food until the
cremation or burial has been finished, all
old fires have been extinguislied, cooked

Death-Taboos,

2bS

food has been thrown away, and until
all people have had a purificatory hath,
and new fires have been lighted. Until
the Boyon or shaving ceremony which
takes place on the seventh day from
death,' ; no Birhor of the settlement
-will shave. Amongst the UthlQs no one
in the tandS will hunt until the HatfSn is
over. Although J^hi Birhoi^ may hunt
during the period, tliey must not eat the
Besh of any game but may only sell it.
The members of the deceased's family,
besides observing the general restriction
against eating fish or flesh until the Baym,
may not even tetlie. Singing and dancing
are not allowed in the until the llo^n
ceremony is over. No serious evil conse*
quences arc, however, believed to resuU
from the disregard of this last prohibition.

tv. The Fususal.

So long as he lives, the Birhor stands in
continuous fear of the spirit-world ; out as
soon as he is dead and until

OWictofth® ii,p Umbiil-ader ceremony

CnimonlM.

266

T/ie Bj'r/iors.

is performed, it is he, or rather his
disembodied spirit, that becomes the
prime object of fears and concern to his
relatives and ottier people of his settlement
And the observances and ceremonies
customary during this period appear to have
for their main object the prevention of
harm to the tgn^ti tlirough his spirit, on
the one hand, and, on the other hand, of
liarm to Jns spirit through stray, malig¬
nant spirits. Even the offering of food laid
out for the spirit of the deceased appears
to be prompted less by a feeling of
a^ection for him than from a fear of Ins
spirit and a desire to keep it agreeably
engaged at a safe distance.

Until the ceremony, ufiich

follorx‘5 the JIdt/an, the spirit of the deceased
hovers about in an unset-
tied state between the land
of the living on the one
side and the spirit-world on the other, mid
is considered peculiarly dangerous to the
community as well as to itself. A woman
dying within twenty-one days of childbirth

The Unimllafmed Dead. 267

or a cliild dying within twenty-one days
of birth may never be admitted Into the

community of ancestor-spirits, as their spinis

are always dangerous. In tUeir case, there¬
fore, a new door-way to the hut is opened
to tahe their corpses to the grave. These
corpses arc buried in a place apart tmin
lhat where other corpses are buned.
Women and not men bury such corpses ,
Uie men only dig their graves and go aw^ay.
Thoms are pricked into their feet to proven
them from leaving tlieir graves. The
corpse in the grave is formally made oyer
by the mati to tire charge of some spin
of a hill or Jungle of the neighbourhood
In doing so the mlUi works liimself up to
a sUtc of supposed ‘possession’, and say^
"O, Spirit of such-and-such hill or

{ names ) t Wc make over
( names the deceased ) to you. ^ Cv
well and let her remain here. Tic
(or rather, as it is believed
through the mouth of the nUib ) da

take cliarge". H first spint a^cd t
lake charge does not make such a rep y.

26S

Tfii Birkon.

another spirit is similarly addressed, and
so on, until some spirit agrees to take
charge of the dangerous corpse. Should a
boy or a girl die before his or her rar-
boring ceremony, the ears of the corpse
arc perforated before it is carried to the
grave, so that the spirit may get admit¬
tance into the community of Birhor spirits.

The corpses of cjiildrcn and women
dying in childbirtJi are buried. In other

ICodwofdiBjo- cremation is prefer-

saloft^odsM red, but burial is optional
and is the normal mode of
disposal during the rains and, if the family
is poor, at all seasons.

On dcatli, the corpse is washed and
anointed with oil mixed with pounded tur¬
meric, If the deceased was
Dti^*aal% ™arricd. vermilion marks
fuom prtraeBsion are made on the forehead.
The corpse is then stre¬
tched out and bound on an improvised
wooden bier and carried head forward
towards the grave or cremation-ground as
the case may be. Except in the cases of

ToiUto/the corpse & the funeral procession. 269

a woman dying within twenty-one days of
childbirth and a cliild dying within hventy*
otic days of birth, who arc carried out by
women through a newly-opened doonray,
the corpses of other BirJiars are taken out
of the hut by men tlirough tlie ordinary
doorusiy. An earthen jug filled with water,
a cup of oil, and a torch are takcij by a
member of the funeraJ procession which
generally comprises all adult members of the
ta}}4^ When the party reach the boundary-
tine their settlement, the

bier with the corpse on it is put down on
the ground for a few minutes, and then
carried to the place of burial or cremation.
At the burial-ground, a grave about three
feet ivide and six feet Jong is dug by tJie men.

The corpse is carried tlirce
BnrioL times round the ^ave and
then laid down flat in tlie
grave with its head pointing south, TJie
trunk of the corpse is covered over with a
piece of cloth, TJie deceased's son or
grandson lakes up a lighted torch in his
right hanrl and someone stands beside

270

Tkc Bifttor$.

Jiim pressing Iiis left eye with one hand.
With his left eye thus closed, lie u'alks
round tJie grave tliree times and then
puts down the torch over the corpse's
mouth. Those who can afford to do
so put a few copper-coins into the corpse's
mouth, A miniature hunting-net, an axe,
two or stiudl slicks used in supporting
a net wJiile stretched, a littie tobacco and
lime in a Iraf or in a lime-box, and, if
possible, a brass plate are placed in Uie
grave beside the head of a male corpse*
Sonic xf^hi Birhofs also pat a piece of
T\tw cloth there* While these are placed
ia the grave, some elder of the fanda
addresses the corpse, saying, thou

and hunt that Do not come this w^y
agam In tJie case of a female corpse, a
hiindJe of t:% Bbres is placed in tJ;e grave
and the coq^se is totd: thou work with

• Uicse. Do not come back to ^s^^ A clod
of earth is then thrown into the grave in
tlic name of each absent rclalive; and
finally all present throw eartli into tlie grave
and ciose it up. Smalt blocks of stone are

Creamtiolu 271

placed over the grave. This practice of
covering up the grave with stones is now
explained as a precaution to prevent jackals
or otlier animals from exliuming the corpse,
WJien a corpse is to be cremated, a
runcml pyre is arranged hy the men. The
corpse is carried three
Crematioa- times round this pyre and
then laid Hat on it witJi
its head pointing south. The son or grande
son circumambulates the corpse three times,
and then with liis left eye closed, as des¬
cribed above, puts tlic lighted torch into
the corpse's mouth and straiglitway leaves
the ground without looking backwards,
goes to some stream or spring, where lie
bathes and returns home. After fire is
first set to the corpse in this way by the
son or grandson wood is placed on the
corpse in the name of each absent relative
and then by every one present. When the
corpse is wholly burnt, the women of the
tsitdB bring jars of water from some stream
or spring close by and jjour the water over
tlic embers with a winnowing basket Then
the women with their left hands pick up

273

Tbn Birhors.

first a toothy next a fingcr-bonc, then a
thigh-bone and fimlly Uic remaining bones,
These they carefully wash in water and
put into a new earthen jug. This jug witli
the bones in it is carried home and hung
up on some tree near the deceased’s hut
to remain there untit the ceremony*

Then all go and purify themselves by
battling in some stream or spring, and
return towards their taiida.

When the funeral party return after the
purificatory bath to the limits of their taad^

. they have to undergo a
Ptui£eatiea >y .. , *

FuBlffstioft ui farther punfication by fire

Fin and fumigation. Before
their return some burning
cliarcoaJ has already been placed there
by the women, and on the approach
of the party a quantity of tlie aromatic
resin of the sal tree (Skorea rohusta) is
sprinkled on the fire to produce a strong-
smelling smoke. Arriving there each one
of the party touches the fire with his left
great toe and waves his left hand over the
fire. Then they proceed to the open space

Pitrt/icutioit by Fumigiaiiot} nnd Fin. 37J

fniiffanj in fmnt of th<? deciiAscd^s hiil, and
there isater in which a bit of copper and
some teaves of the sacred basil have been
dipped is sprinkJed on their persons. TJien
the men in a body enter the hut of liie
deceased.

As soon as tJw corp.se had been taken
out of the hut, the part of the floor where
the deceased Itad breathed
tiui cleaned with

mud or cowtkmfi dihiteil
in water, and as lies spread over it in tlie
belief that the footprints of the spirit which
caused tJie death might be detrxt^
in the ashes. Tire men now scrutinke
the supposed footprints in the ashes to
discover whether the spirit was a tamily
spirit or an interloper. If the footprints
look like tliosc of a person entering lln=
lint, it is concluded that death wtis caused
by a spirit of the house, otherwise it is
concluded that it is some outside spirit—
perhaps one of a different wluch^

is respmisible for the death. The ml
works himself up i'do 3 ‘'i

again

tJ4

The Birbon,

supposed spirit-possession and declares
what sacrifices are necessary to propitiate
the spirit, if it is a spirit of the fflnrfa.
If it is ati outside spirit, the mati
performs the ningclAd ceremony, so that
the spirit may not come again to the
house.

On the evening of the day after the dealli,
a son or parent or widow or oUier member
. of the deceased's family
^ leaf-plate of
boiled rice and pot-herb nr
pulse, a leaf-cup of water, a little tobacco
and lime (if the deceased used to take it ),
and a glowing faggot, to the outskirts
(hdhi-^un) of the settlement, where the
corpse was temporarily put down by the
pall-bearers on their way to the burial
or cremation ground. As the person puis
these down on the ground, he or she
addresses the sliade of tlie deceased
“Here now, we have brought
food for thee, we have brought tobacco
anrl time for thee. Take these and
tw quiet . If the deceased was a babe

Food-o^crin^ for the Dead. 27S

at the breast, mother’s milk is taken to the
spot instead of riee and other articles.

V. The HoyOn or Shading Ceremony.

On the seventli or nintli day after death
the bones of die cremated corpse are
buried in a small bole just outside the fdJida
under some tree, and covered op witli a
stone slab. It is believed that the
ancestor-spirits of the deceased cany llic
hones to the original liome of the clan.
So while burying the bones, the chief
mourner eKcIaims **Ancestor-spirits,

Larry these bones to the origjnal home
[of the clan]." Then all the Bimr^
of the settlement go outside tiic Simib
of the fflrtda. Women have tlicir nails
pared. ' Then they bathe themselves in
some stream and return to the mda.
The widow of the deceased, when she goes
to the stream for bathing, throws aw-ay
the Iron bracelet hitherto worn by ler
as 3 sign of the married slate.
thing, she puts on a new sur-tlnih. called

T/« Birkors.

Ihe widou‘'«i cloth (rati^ presented

to her by her fiither or brother who come
on a visit to the ta^a for the occasion.

VI. Umeul-Ader or Calunc back
THE Shade.

In tlie evening a lew men go to the spot
on the outskirts of the fmda where the
corpse rested on its way to
burial place or crema¬
tion ground. There they
put up a miniature leaf-'Shed running nortit
to south in length and facing east, and
then go back to their The whole

fatjda now maintBins absolute silence.
Three or five other men go to tlie new^ shed
carrying with tliem two sickles, a new
Irasket and a chicken. A few other men
wait in breathless silence at the deceased's
house, where a lamp ts kepi burning.
Arrived at the miniature leaf-shed, the men
who go there with the chicken sacrifice
it, saying,—*‘A11 ye stray spirits, spirits of
persons wlm are long lost or wlio died an

Erinj^ut^ back the Shade.

evil death, leave yc the shade of tJie newly-
deceased. Here we offer this fowl to you ;
do ye give up his shade,” Saying thiSi the
men strike one sickle against tiie other and
call out the name of ilieir recently-deceased
relative aod exclaini,—"Come so-and-so
( names) I Look I thy house is burning,”
With repeated exclamations like this the
party return home, followed, as they believe,
by the shade of Uieir dead relative. In tlic
nieanwhile, the door of the deceaS45d s old
hut is closed against their approacli.
Arrived at the door, they call out,—**Wluch
of you arc steeping and which of you are
awake ?” Those within tlie hut ask,—"Arc
you our own people or strangers ?" "We
arc your people and not strangers", is the
reply. Tliereupon Uiey ask, "What then
do you want ?” The men reply, "We have
taken out sorrow, and now we bring you
Itappiness". The door is then opened and
they are admitted into the hut
On entering the hut, they ask watJi
bated breath, “Has the shade come in ?"
The reply is always in the affirmative,

278

The Birkon.

^ however, must be

^ * called in. On his arrival,

the wflti takes up a handful of rice, sprinkles
it round his head and swings his head
from side to side with increasing rapidit?
until he gets into a state of spirit" possession
in order to see if the spirit has really

entered the hut. One of tlic itteti present
asks tlic name of the spirit which has
entered his body, smd in a nasal voice,
supposed to he characteristic of spirits,
the mtiit gives out the name. If the
name is not that of the deceased but of
some other spirit, the ceremony of burning
the miniature hut and calling back the
spirit is repeated, And the mflri again
gets into a state of spirit-possession. When
the spirit of the deceased at length enters
the body and reveals itself, people

present joyfully exclaim: '‘Ah I He has
come now I This is his own house ; where
else can he go to It is now no longer
tlic sidti who speaks, but the spirit of the
deceased who uses the mati’a mouth in
speaking. The spirit is now questioned,—

Discovering the Agent of Death. 270

“Who took you nway from this world f
Was it an extraneous bhut or a bhut of the
house r' On naming the bhui that is
responsible for the death, the spirit asks
leave to get out of the body of the unati.
If some spirit of the family of the deceased,
either an ancestor spirit or the Burn-
Bofigd, or some spirit of the has

been named as responsible for the deatli,
proper sacrifices arc offered to appease it;
if it is some foreign spirit that has caused
the death, the utrwjfcMs ceremony is per¬
formed by the mati In the case of a
Birhog killed by a tiger, lus spirit is called
back by the itniitf-Sder ceremony and a
seat is provided for the spirit of the deceased
by planting an erect stone imder some
tree, and there sacrifices are offered perio-
dicalty.

After tlic mail has declared tlial the
sliade l^as entered the hut, the men who

carried the corpse to its

grave or cremation-ground

BflOTUftffTjoi ^ leaf-plate

with some boded rice on it* Each of them

280

The Birhors,

lakes up ihc leaf-plate and places it on
Ills shoulder and then puls it down again
on the ground. This is repeated three
times. Each time he does so the man is
asked by the others present,—“Whose
shoulder-poSe (kSTidh-kctthi)h this youj
put down He replies: “Now at

length I am putting dou'n the shoulder-*
pole of so-and-so ( names the decked
When this ceremony is finished, the
three leaf-plates ol rice arc taken to
the spot where the corpse rested on its
way to the grave or cremation-ground,
and are left there. TJ»is ceremony, known
as ^'discharging the shoulder-pole,” must
be performed Uiat night, whether the fune¬
ral feast is ^ven at once or delayed.

Generally the feast to all Uic people of
the settlement is also provided that night j
but somctiines, owing to want of means.

FeUvad a ftaitfinu Tkij refm to llifl

polov of tbs bwr is whicli tbft corptid vrnt carried to
itapsTHw creaialioitgrotuid

C€re*Honial Wailing.

it is delayed for a tew
WiUisff- c

months or even for a

year. A family postponing the feast

may perform the Aoyffn. ceremony on the

fifth day from tlic death. Two interesting

ceremonies preltide the feast. When their

meals are served to the guests, but before

they begin eating, a wailing is heard and

the widow or a son or a brother of the

deceased pfaintivcly exclaims, ‘'Other people

live in [pools] full [of] water jiani>.

t am living in dried' up [poo! of] water

pstii):' The guests in reply say

by way of consolation i "Why, friend, w**

are still alive. Wliy should we allow you

to be swept away ?" By this ritual wailing

and consolation is the social tie that binds

the surviving members of the deceased's

family to the other families of the rfl'ida

renewed or cemented and strengthened.

The next interesting ceremony that

precedes the least serves to incorporate the

iipirit of the deceased in

tlic community of bis

anccstor*spirit5 (hapfrom)-

Ineoesosatiott
wiuths ^
A&wtor-Spliita.

282

Thi Birliors.

Before tKc guests Imvc yet begun to cal
the dinner placed before Ihetn, the iV%^
of the settlement and another elder of
die tribe, who are botJi seated side
by side in a central position, lake up
hi their hands a little rice from tlieir
plates and drop it on tlie ground by
way of offering to the ancestor-spirits,
saying:— “Here we make rice offering
to ye all in the nanie of so-and-so
( names the deceased ), Do ye incorporate
him in your herd (ffofh). From to-day
we shall offer rice and liquor to ye all”*
Then each of them drops a little water on
the ground and says,—"To-day we Imve
performed 'Ilanhoi' of so-and-so (names),-*
Htcrib^ i Ilaarib^ f Haribdr’. The two men
now sprinkle water with mango leaves on
all present and bid them eat; and aU fall
to eating.

UarUnst, nuwiu “utter tlio naiafi rf ITtirioe GaA".

Thill ti the eiutomuj ndtnutiDn et

ini' fiipduB whi'it a dfinth ocernrH iii a fuaily and a

CDTpfiD it Cttmfxl to tbf] Th«l

Birbore, liho th^ BfutidiUi appiiar to tiavo bofirowad
Lbb usage fnmi thn HiDdiia.

lttcort>oratioii mth the Aiicestor^pirit.

Tlius is tlic normal state of things in the
settlement restored, the spirit of tlic
deceased is incorporated in the community
of ancestor-spirits, the death-taboos on the
survivors are removed ; and tlic people of
the resume their usual avocations.

CHAPTER JX*

Rvllgioits Beliefs and Practices.

1. Man's Relation to the Si'JRrr*woRLD.

Of the BirhofSf as of other tribes on a
similar level of culture, Religion may very
well be said to constitute almost their
whole u-ay of life. All the ills of life—
and life to IJicm is brimful of ills—are
believed to be caused by supcrnatuiat
agencies^-either by spirits hovering about
in earth, air, and water, hill and forest,
river and spring, or by lesser powers and
energies immanent in various animate
beings as well as in certain inantmate objects
and even in such immaterial things as a spo¬
ken \n)rd, an expressed wish, a passing
thought or emotion, a passing glance, a
magic formula or diagram, and certain
names and numbers. And the problem of
life which has ever presented itself to the

Religion—iii£ Problem of Life, 2SS

tribal mind is how to protect the commu¬
nity and its members and tlieir scanty
earthly possessions from the evil attentions
of spirits and the liarmful influences of
other mysterious powers and energies
so as to make life wortli living* The
solution of the problem that the tribal
mind appears to have arrived at is to seek
to establish permanent friendly relations,
through appropriate rites and sacririces,
irilh ttie more important spirits, iTOwerful
alike for good or eril, and to drive off,
control, scare away, neutralkc or avoid the
lesser powers and energies by various rites
and actions, spells and taboos, iJireats an
tricks and thus to secure good luck and
avoid had tuck to health, life, progeny,
and food-supply.

The BirhorH whole life—economic,
domestic, social and socio-political—
perraded by his religion {Including that
aspect ot it which anthropologists generally
term Magic ); and his religion consists m
a Jiaunting sense of 'sacred' presences—
a haunting fear of spirits and spintua

28(1

The Birliors,

energies leading him to continuous end¬
eavours, through appropriate rites and
sacriltces, charms and spells, to (conciliate
them, when necessary, and control, avoid
or repel diem, when possible.

To the BirJidt', every thing above, below
or around him is animated either by a
spirit or by a spiritual energy or power,
as every living being is animated by a
soul or souls. Although the spirits or
spiritual energies residing in a large num¬
ber of things are ;Umost dormant or, at
any rate, impotent or innocuous, the
residue that still remain as active spirits
and energies with varying degrees of power
arc not inconsiderable in Jinmber. The
most important among these are the spirits
of their original native hills or forests
wliom they call SnFft^Bmgan or OfH
Bofiffits. Besides the spirits of theh
numerous native hills, forests and streams,
there arc the ever-in creasing spirits of d«itl
human beings, all seeking food and nourish¬
ment. The in Ids absorbing quest

for food and Ins iinrcmitling cfl'orts to

Religion—ihc Problem aj U/e> 257

prescrvt; life and health is not unoften, so
he believes, waylaid and baffled by some
spirit or other hungering on his part for
sustenance. Some of tlie more powerful
spirits are said to regard tigers and bears
as their ‘Limbs*, and men as their ‘peacocks'.
The deer is called by the Birh5r ‘the goat
of the gods’, and, as we have seen, when
the liirJttir slays a deer, lie oSers a bit
of its hair or skin to llie 'gods' of the forest
to avert their displeasure. Thus, the Bv -
Aof ever walks througli life willi a sense of
mysterious ‘sacredness', almost approaching
awe in the presence of the higher spirits,
whom he seeks to propitiate with pen^cal
sacrifices and offermgs, and m a spirit o
cautious and vigilant fear of the lesser
spirits and impersonal powers or forc<s
which he seeks to avert, repel, or control.
When the lesser spirits, hotvever, are not
amenable to control bnt cause repealed
failure in the chase or sickness to man,
tlwy have to he appeased by saenhees or
promises of sacrifices; and even the higher
spirits, cither when there is a deby in the

288 TIk Birhon,

supply of thoir period [cat sacrifices or
when they are tempted by some mis¬
chievous spirit or spirit-deater to taste
blood before the appointed time of sacrifice,
seek to satisfy their premature craving
for food and drink by causing sickness
and dcatli to man. TJius, for the
the work! is a vast *sacred' arena where
man and spirit are continually engaged
in a silent struggle each for Ills own Jiand.
j\nd, over it all, sits apart the great God
Singhon^Sf symbolised by the Sunj generally
an unconcerned Spectator—tlie or

Witness, as the lUrhor aptly cliaracterues
Him—of the doings of men and spirits,
their struggles and strivings to secure fooil
and sustain and strengtlicn life.

It Is only a few favoured persons, more
sensitive than others, who in a state of
self-induced trance can enter into direct
communion with the spirit-world, kuow
the wishes and demands of particular
gods or spirits and assist in bringing about
a mutual understanding between man and
tlie gotls and spirits and in putting their

Man's Rdatiotis with the Spirit-world. 289

fellow-men on friendly or rather working
relations with them. The average man can
hope to enter into some sort ol direct
relations witli the spirit-wrarld only when
his physical body is asleep, but with tlic
return of the soul to the body almost all
recollection of the soul's dream experi¬
ences of the spirit-world is lost and no
direct consciousness of tliat world is
retained. All BirUr worshippers are, how¬
ever, privileged to become, for the lime
being, 'one with tiic god’ by eating the
sacriheiai meat.

i(. Deities and Spirits.

The Birhor recogoixes a distinction
betw'ecn gods' or spirits who may haw to
be propitiated witli prayers and saenbees
and impersonal powers, forces or energies
which may be controlled, averted or
repeUed by spells, threats and other
methods of ‘magic*. Of ‘personal' spirits
some receive regular sacrifices, and others
19

The. BiWww.

are noi ordinarily heeded unless tliey cause
repeated obstruction to the chase or to the
gatlieriu^ of honey or other food| or cause
repeated misfortune in health or progeny,
and refuse to be bribed away or placated
by a casual sacrifice so that they have
finally to be conciliated by being included
among the Muniis-WaoU to whom sacrifices
at regular intervals must be made. This
is liow the jBtrASrj, and particulariy the
migratory section among them iwho move
about in strange jungles and hills Infested
by strange spirits, continually roake adcU*
tions to their clan-iAwi^ and

Anthropomorphic ideas, though not yet
tully developed, are in the making. The

Ora botifj^ are believed to
Budin flutaiy^ liave each a particular
uthnjmnpbc ,, 5 ,

vehicle. Men of the clan
sometimes liavc dreams of their
coming from the direction of their native
hills riding their favourite animals. One
class of spirits arc reyretiented as armed
men and atiolhcr as men wearing beards,

Pliite XXVIL“A BirhOi* sacrificing to lilts
family iaanitd. spirits reprcaentetl by lisrapB of
day. Tlio small Imt at. the bade is tbe spirit-
lint (Botigd-ovd)*

The Myth of Lugu PaJtar, 191

The spirits are generally divided into
males and females. Besides the ancestor-
spirits, some other spirits are apparently
deified men, as such names of spirit': as
San Singht Dalai >^ngk, and a few others
indicate.

The personificatjoti of a htU-spirit is
illustrated by the following myth with

Thiaythof

spirits. The natural
features of the hilts ap¬
parently suggested this antliropomorphJc
interpretation. The spirit named Liigi
Pahar {spirit of the Lagm hilt) gave fijs
daughter in marriage to the spirit now
knovm as Bsnga Buru (the spirit of the
Ear^a Hill). One day the son-in-law
seeing a tiger domesticated by his father-
in-law told Lugi Pahar, “Kindly lend
me your dog (tiger ) for a time. There
are many peafowls { men ) in our part
of the country, I shall send back your
dog after it has killed the pea-fowls."
The father-in-law acceded to the request
and he took the tiger home. Wlien he

The Birhor^.

293

set the tiger on to attneb lialt a dozen
men who were cutting wood in a jungle
to make ploughs with, the wood-cutters
struck the tiger to deatli with their axes.
As tlic tiger was long iu returning to
him, Ligrt-Pahar himself went to his son-
in-law’s place to bring his 'dog’ hack.
His son in-law mth lus old father had,
in the meanwhile, left home for purposes
of trade—^the father to sell 'sheep’ (that
is, bears wliich are the 'sheep' of the
spirits) and the son to trade in clothes.
They stopped by the side of another
hill where they laid out there clothes one
.above another. When iuffS PaMf came
to his son-in-law’s place on a hill and
learnt that his son-in-law and the latter's
lather w-ere both away from home, he
questioned his ow*n daughter about the
whereabouts of his 'dog'. The daughter
related what had happened to the animal
and added tlial her husband and father-
in-laur meant to buy a new 'dog’ for
him with the profits of trade. At this
fAtgit Pahdr was so furiously angry Ural

TUi Myth] 0 / Lniiu Pohar. 29S

lie set fire to llic hill which lurrcd red
and it has been since known as Hangn-
bin {the Red Hill Seeing the hill
on fire, the son-in-law and his father ran
to the spot leading their stock of' clothes
in piles and these turned into a jugged
hill with rock piled upon rock in tiers,
now known as [ CJothes-heap)

Hiir, and the bears which had been left
on another rock still liaunt the

fSiipH now known as ( Rock

of Bears ). Burhi LUgv, the wife of Liigii
PMtart is by some identified with Burhi
Mai, the mother-goddess. Two gods named
Amnd Singh and Smiat Singh, said to
be the sons of Pahar, periodically

receive the sacrifice of a red goat from
the men of the Ludamba clan who also
offer one red goat to LigH Pahar himseti
Although men may never be achially
married to spirits, yet when a man dreams
of liaving sexual intercourse with his wife
or other woman or has nocturnal pollution,
it is believed that he was leaving sexual
intercourse in sleep with one of the &M-

294

The Birhors,

Bahim spirits {tlic “seven sisters')—a
class of ‘Nature-spirits' or elemental spirits
of streams and poot^.

The main deities of the Birhdfs beades
Singhonga, the Creator, and Devi Mai or

the EartJ; goddess, are
certain hill-spirits aod
ancestor-spirits, A few

BtihOT Qsltles
an4 SpiiitB-

beast-gods such as ( tiger god),

Uitf^sr-biv ( Wolf-god J, Bir-Bsnketj
( Orang-outang-god ), ,B3nda»-5ir ( Mon-
key-god ) and Himumsn^r ( Baboon-god J
are also propitiated. Although certain
trees are believed to be the abode
of spirits, tree-worship, as a cult, is un¬
known. The festival 6f the ^aram
cUapami/otia) tree and the Jitia-pipar tree
appear to have been adopted by some of
the settled groups from their neighbours the
Mundas and certain semi-Hind uised tribes.

The Btrhtt^r regards the spirits almost
as his equals who possess or have acquired
a certain sanciity or rather ’sacredness*
and superior power, but are inclined to
be friendly if kept in good humour and

Birhar Deitits and ^irits. 29S

supplied with focxJ and shelter iP due time.
Spirits are anxious to have an 'artftfflt' or
seat where food and drinlt may be regu¬
larly provided to them by men. Before
3 migratory group of Birltofs leave

their encampment in one jun^e and start
for another jungle, the bamboo-tube con¬
taining rice (cli^i-^Sng) used at the
sacrifices is placed in a tiny bamboo box
called hdnga^peti which is generally carried
in a ba^et called h(/nff 3 ^i!hSjt^i but by
the men of the clan carried in a smaU

net called iur-jhdi. The Or^Bongai are
believed to lemain in the spirit-box with
this rice. The other deities of the com¬
munity are supposed to be accommodated
during the journey in the spirit-basltet. The
wooden pegs, stones or lumps of clay, that
represented the dificrent spirits at the now-
abandoned spifit-seate arc upturned, and
the arrow-heads or iron tridents or iron
chains or other symbols rqwesenting
different spirits arc taken up and placed
inside the spirit-baskets, and the spirits
are all told.—Come along 1 We are going

296

Tiw Blrhors.

«o such-and-such jungle,” and the spirits,
it is said, readily troop into the spirit-
b^ket or spirit-net, as the case may be,
with which a man caUed ‘*Bonga-gogdni"^
{ spirit-carrier) Avalks a little ahead of the
party.

AltihiideQ (generally worshipped only by
certain families or individuals ), Singbdr^
and the Mother-goddesses Devi-Mai. Burhi
Jfai, and JCdli Mai are, however, deities
who are superior to man, and stand as a
class apart. These mother-godesses really
belong to a comparatively higher level
of culture, and appear to have been bor¬
rowed by the Birhors from their Hinduised
neighbours who are in the agricultural
stage. They are the gods proper, and the
rest are spirits and bhals. Among spirits,
the Bara-B^aa or ancestral hill-spirits
and the Boprom or ancestor-spirits rank
highest. The rest are bh&s among whom
Chandi Is a general spirit, sacrificed to by
the whole tribe.

The different deities and spirits recog-

Tribal and Spirilla.

nized by the BirMfi may be classified

as follows :~

I* General ok tribal cods and spirits.

(1} Supreme Gad or Singhmqs,—
At the head of the B%th^f spirits and
deities stand this great Over*God who
ordinarily takes no active interest in
human affairs. He does not ordinarily cause
any harm to man, and may occasionally
protect him from E\il. He is recogni£ed
as the Creator of the world. While going
out to hunt or to collect honey the Birhaf
sometimes invokes His aid to procure
him game or honey, as the case may be.
A Birixor naively explained to me the ratson
dcaire for such Invocation by saying,
''It is for the stomach ( hunger ) that we tell
'To-day wc are going to hunt:
do give us game.' Since S\ng}>S/ng9 created
us He moat provide us with food." Some
BirHfs in explaining to me the cbaiacter-
istics of Singhvti^a described Him as the
S^chi or Witness of what men and spirits

TItc Birhors.

do. He is spoken of as idcnticaJ udth
the Sun, but not the material part of the
great luminary. The Hindu name, Bhaga^
wan, is also applied to Him. There is just
the glimmering of an idea that He is a
moral God who punishes WTong-doing.
To avert particuJar dangers, a white goal
or a white fowl is offered to Him by the
head of a family with his face to the east
White prknarity symbolises the white rays
of tlie Sun ; the secondary sigtiihcation of
‘pure* and ttie idea of mtjral purity
can liardly be said toj''attach yet to the
colour in the Birfiofa mind.

{2} The Mother-Goddesses Devi Af*
and Bttfhi M.^ are, unlike Si\ig})&ng&^ inten¬
sely interseted in man, and, if properly
served, brings him luck in health, progeny
and food. Devi Jfsi is generally represen*
ted by a piece of wood daubed red with
vermilion

{3) and ot&er Spirits of ihe

Chase. —Near every Birhor fdndd a piece of
rock or stone under some tree is fixed upon
as the seat of the hunting God ChSndi and

Tribal Cods and Spirils. 299

and his associates. Before undertaking
a hunting expedition, the nets, sticks, and
axes which the hunters carry mth them
arc arr anged under the tree and the
oders sacrifices to Ghdndi to ensure success
in the hunt. Bandar Bir and Hnlman Bir
are believed to bring success in catching
monkeys.

(4) 3rahali CAM|t.—This Is a female
spirit who is also said to be a wife of the spirit
Lilgu Palia^ { named after a liill of that
name in the Haearibagh district), She Is
also said to be the ‘mafit’ or presiding
deity of smaller game like the fogi (a
kind of wild cat) and torha (a spedes
of large lizard), and votvs of sacrifices are
made to this spirit to ensure success in
hunting these animal s which are generally
caught in the rainy months; and these
vows are duly fulfilled. On the occasion
of the thhafhi ceremony of a new-born
babe in a 5frJl6f family the sacrifice of a
black fowl is made to this deity by the
NdjfB on the open space in front of the
kumba or hut of the family, and a similar

300

The Birlujrs.

offering is made on tlic occasion of a mar-
riagc in a Birhor family. Originaltyi it
would seem, this ^vas a hill-deity, since
anthropomorphized, and was probably the
Ofilbongd of some formerly predominant
clan. Now she is regarded as merely a
powerful spirit to whom ^crifices have to
be offered at the thadns or spirit-seats tO
prevent liairn to the community.

n. CLA.M Spirits.

(]) BuriSidngiis or Of/hbdngaa,—!:hese
are the spirits of the different hills reputed
to have formed the original homes of the
different Btrhdf clans. They are generally
identified with the hills themselves. In
fact, it is only the Jaghi or settled Btrbof#
who sometimes call them Bkri (hill)
hangaSt whereas the Uthlu (migratory)
Birhofs invariably call thesejspirits the firs*
( bouse ) hennas. They arc believed to be
the or ‘masters’ ( dispensers) of

sickness. Some of the Burn Bdngss are
credited with certain powers over Nature,

dan Spirits. SOI

such as that ol causing and stopping i^in
and storm. Each Ora^gS, or fiani bonga
has its peculiar sacrifices which the head
of the clan in every faffda offers annually
in Aghanf P«3» Magh^ or Asa^L When a
man of any gotra dreams of his Birv
benga coming riding the animal which is
its reputed vehicle, some misfortune to
the village is apprehended, and a special
pujaat sacrifice is offered.

(2) ZayanJho Pto—Almost every Birhor
clan has a particular Larankia Bhiit (fighting
spirit) with whose help in ancient times the
forefathers of the clan arc reputed to have
fought against other clans- They used to be
invoked and sacrifices offered to them before
members of the clans started on fighting
expeditions. As sucli expeditions are un¬
known in modern times, it is only when
the LafUnkui hhiil of 3 clan appears in a
dream to members of the clan that sacri¬
fices are offered to it, as it is believed that
the spirit is hungry and will cause mis¬
chief if no food is provided. The shape
in which the BdrAtikia bhut appears in

302

The Bithors.

dreams is that of a man anned for battle.
Among sach 6^^ arc Chatrams of the
Bhaiya clan, Mahdi of the Minim dan,
and Murksfti of the A^i clan,

(3) Jfanfta (acquired)

Some of the clans have a few Manila or
acquired spirits which are provided with
seals either in a small leaf-hut called hongs'
ofd (spirit-hut ) or tn a special lhaan or
spirit-seat of the family as distinguished
from the comman. (jamd) thi^ of the fSnda.
The way in which such spirits appear to
have been 'acquired' is this; When a clan-
group in the past repeatedly met with some
miaforhinc or other, such as obstruction
in their hunting or honey-gathering expedi¬
tions or sichness and death, a mOd was
consulted and some particular spirit was
declared to be responsible for the trouble.
If in spite of offerings of fowl, pig or other
sacrifice, there was a recurrence of the
trouble and the spirit refused to abstain
from its mischievous tricks unless provided
with a scat and regular periodical sacrifices,
such a seat was provided and regular sacri-

Manila Spirils.

SD3

fices promised. As now-a*days tiic (ood-
groups are oot Eolely clan-groaps but mixed
groups consisting of persons of different
clans, such spirits arc acquired by

the food-group or i'Snda as a ivbole and arc
known as Ssiujfi*bhuts or group-gods. Such
clan-gods of the fusnits type as members
of any clan might have inherited from thek
forefathers were carried by them to the
food^group or of which they now form
part, and ^ven seats at a thaan or spirit-seat
sclecied by tiic family by tlie side of tlic
encampment or settlement. A lump of clay
or a stone or a small wooden peg or other
symbol is placed there to represent the spirit
The fandSt as a whole, feels as much
interested in keeping these spirits in good
humour and avert any mischief from them
as the dan or family to w'hich they parti*
cularly belong. Consequently, as clan-gods,
they each receive from the head of the parti¬
cular clan in the the stipulated

sacrifices at the appointed season r snd, as
Sangi*bhits or group-spirits, they jmntly
receive ivith other group-spirits some

The Birkors.

common sacrifices to share amongst then)'
selves. Among such clan-spiiits ma^

be mentioned Bir-Bsknfi^i Awmd

^ughp ChJamniti Singh, B&i Singh, Bniil
Siiigii, LUgu Pdhsf, Mai or Methimaga or
Mahd Msi, DindShbefi, Baghiir, Hunddr^
bit, MohiMea and several otliers. In the
spirit-basket of a family of tlie LudQmbS
clan I saw a pair oF small iron-chains wliich
were said to represent MahSdeo which was
the Manila clan-god of tlte family. Beside
the door of the tcaf-liut belotij^g to a
family of that clan in the same tandH 1
saw suspended on the outer wall a winnow¬
ing basket wliich, I was told, represented
a Manila clan-spmt named Guru Gds^in,
In cases of an epidemic of cholera or small¬
pox in the t3t}4a, the motiier-goddess Devi
is generally offered one red goat and Uie
goddess Kali Mdi is offered one black
goat A vow or mSMta is made when
the epidemic spreads and the promised
sacrifices are offered by tlic Na^yS when it
abates.

i‘'nttuty Spirits. 305

[II. Familv Swrits.

£ 1) fft^rotn. or Ancojitor^pinte.^Thn^.c
arc the spirits of such deceased persons of
a /firAif family as have beeu coaducied
to the sdifig or mner tabemaeic of the
liut by the Umbuit*iider cereoaony. Until
ilic Ksthwl^Ader ceremony is performed in
respect of any deceased member of the
family the spirit remaiiis as a mua ajKl is not
included among the Ildpfimt a$ ancestor-
spirits are called. Similarly, the spirits of
the following classes of persons are not
conducted to tlie adiriQ and consequently
are not included within the vk.,

spirits of women dying in pregnancy or
chitdhirtli or during their menses; spirits
of persons dying of snake-bite, cholera or
small-pox, persons killed by tiger, or
drowned to death ; the spirit of a man dying

'» TfaeZWHJ «■ tnigniwry BirhiiHi

binor ubem&clD fi«* tlio USpfoinx but lorrifiise U>
them in ft amtdl Imf hut wliich iftirre" M thi-tr

friMl QT neurit-hilt^

sot

The Birbors.

during the menstrual period of Iiis «ifc
and the spirit of a bachelor who kept a
maiden without marrying her. Unless their
regular sacrifices and offerings are negleced,
these ancestor-spirits cause no harm, but,
on the other hand, care for the well-being
of the family and assist them in securing
game or honey. Promises of a decent
sliare in the spoil of the chase induce the
ChowTfisi-Haprom ancestor-spirits to redou¬
ble their cner^es tn baffling impediments
to the chase sought to be offered by certain
spirits. If, however, these iT^rdms are
not reguiarly supplied with food and drink,
they themselves prevent success in securing
game or honey, or incite outside hh-^ to
cause sickness in the family. It is said that
out of a touch of natural affection they gene¬
rally do not themselves cause sickness to
their linman relatives but incite other spirits
to do so in such cases. When a girl of the
family goes wrong with a man of the same
clan, it is the Buflm^BuThi ancestor-splril-s
who in their solicitude for the good of the
family reveal the sin to the matt.

Family Spirih.

The or nncesiDr-spirits, as we

have indicated, are divided into two
classes—the Bufh&’Bitrhi or near ancestors
of the family whose names are still remeni'
bered and the Oh&iorWsi Hapf^m who arc
the ancient dead of the family whose
names are no longer remembered. Sacri¬
fices to the former arc offered by the
head of the family who sacrihees one
red hen after the thatkx ceremony of
a new-bom babe, and one after a marriage
in the family, and also one on the occasion
of Uie Sarhvl feast in such families as
ofaseni'c that feast. To the ChauTtHi
Hapfwi the Na^n or priest of the
similarly sacrifices a fowl on the occasion
of the tlxathi ceremony of a new-born
child in the family and at a wedding in tlie
family. Before taking his rice-meal, every
adult Birhor puts down on the ground :i
. few grains of rice from his plate in the
names of his ancestor-spirits; and, similarly,
before drinking liquor he must drop a
few drops of it on Hie ground in their
names,

30S

The Birhors.

Althougli they gcnenitJy exercise a
guardian care over their descendants,
aiicestor>spirits are not consulted in times
of danger or distress nor credited with the
power of ^ving oracles to them. Btrhdr
customs do not appear to indicate any
relation between ancestor-worship and
totemism although, as we have seen, there
appears to exist a special relation between
the spirit of the ancestral hill of a clan
and the totem of the clan.

The cult of 'heroes' or the distinguished
dead would appear to be unknown, unless
such spirits as Bsn Sinffh, Ditlar Singhs
etc., be those of heroes whose acliievcments
liave been forgotten.

{ 2 ) Mamta Bughotits. —When a mem¬
ber of a family is killed by a tiger, his
spirit, as I have said, is not included within
the Hapivnn or ancestor-gods nor accom¬
modated citJicr in the ading of the family-
Jmi or in the family ihsan or spirit-seal.
Such a Baghout spirit, as it is called, is
represented by a stone or a lump of clay
placed ui the spirit-lud, if the family has

Family Spirits, S09

one, or under a tree tiear the tiissn or
scat of the spirits. Some JagU

Birhoys plant an upr^ht stone lo mark
the seat of the BagJumt, A speckled
(spotted red and white ) fowl is offered
lo the spirit periodicaiJy by the head of
the family to avert any mischief whtcli this
spirit may cause.

(3 ) BKiiis or tke acgttiried

j/piritx of a /hmify.—AJtliough the Bsghoum
described in tfm last paragraph are caUed
Msnita Bogkout^ to distinguish them from
shay tdiff Boghoiito wlio are spirits of per¬
sons fdlkd by tigers and not conducted
back to their people, they are rirtoally
ajic(stQr-gods. The gods proper

of a family comprise such spirits as
owing to repeated mishaps luvtng been
caused by them to the fainlly have been
promised seats and periodical offerings
by a member of the family in order to

Tbo^nawea spiiiVi ol cUna’ dwontuif abora Hutj
dIbo be, oame ^ theoiii naJlir MinilS opritB ot pttrU-
cuhu femilics wbu ongiudlj aoqqiiai) tbsm fvr
tbemadve;.

The Birtion.

prevent, luturc mischief from them. The
is appealed to for the purpose of
tindingout the name of the hhM causing
mishaps and the offering required to
appease the bhvL An instance of such a
family bhat js IJic spirit of a murdered
person to whom periodical sacrifices are
offered by Uie descendants of tfic murderer.
An interesting class of such spirits arc what
arc called tJie Bhutu of the famiJy

of the murderer. As instances of such
ItAiite n\ay be mentioned the following:—
In one Birlior I tounc] a family of

tlie Bhitiya clan sacrificing to a &AmI whicfi
was named Lshi N&aan, and the head of
the family gave me the following account of
its origin: His grandfather had once grown
lac on a few trees, but some unknown
tiiief stealthity removed the lac from the
trees. The owner of the lac took up a
little of the earth on which the foot-print
of the thief could be seen. Witli the help
of this earth known as j&ngd'dhvrH (foot-
dust ), a mitred bhid was set up to kill
the Urief, Not long aftcnvards, misfortune

Family Ma«ita Bhuis, 311

after misfortune troubled my informant’s
grandfather. A tiufti was called in, and by
tfic 2>«t-Aora process of spirit-ftnding it
was known that the thief had been kilted
by tlic rnsral-hhiil and that it was the
spirit of the murdered thief. Sacrifices
by the nfn^AAd method were made three
times, but the spirit would not be appeased
until it was made a msnils of by being provi¬
ded with a seat and regular sacrifices at
fixed intervals. This was accordingly done.
Just in the same way a family of the
clan of Birhofs in anotJier as I ivas

informed, had acquired a wtSuijEa Bhit
named Nasan which was the spirit

of a cowherd whose cattle damaged the
field of an ancestor of the Lipimg man and
who was consequently dealt witfi in the
same uay as the lac-thief* In another t^}d^
I found an instance of a similar fanuly*&AMt
styled MarichrttSiian whose origin was thus
accounted for. An ancestor of a Btrhof
family belonging to the Hembrvm gotra
saw a chilli (nun'ich) plant full of chillies
on a plot of jars {land cleared by burning

The Birims.

down trees oti it The inau could not
resist the tfimptation ©f liatping Jiimselt with
all the cliillies on the plant. The owner,
witit the help oi the isjigd^kwra of the thkrf,
dealt with him in the manner described
above and the thief deid within a short
time, and Ids spirit was duty conducted to
the ^nhrig of bis own hut. The relativca ot
the latter, howevo', with the help of one of
those very stolen cliilfes, set on a maral
who soon killed the owner of the chiUi
plant. The spint of the latter began to
afflict the family of his enemy in several
ways mi at length, other means of appeasing
llie spirit having failed, it was given a seat
by the family who accepted it as a faintly
Hagan spirit.

^ Some families have what are bnmvn as
ATwtirfl hh^ and some have Andher ihitg.
These are bdievcd to manifest thetn'
selves ( lit, rwtt > when they feel hungry
and cause sickness until they are appeased
by sacrifices. Kiidr4 bhiUs s^d to have
vvitli them their consorts knovvTi as iTidn
hofujag. fn some families the KMrd bhii

Group gads, J/J

is rcpr(:sentcd by aQ earlben vessel wbjcb
is turned upside down after a sacriBcc.

The Ddrhs spirit which has its seal
usually on a held (ifclntr) and in some
places by the side of a stream iS: some¬
times called Dorfid Kiidrd. Some say that
Ddflid or ^Qrlid'kudf’tl is the husband of
£udri and both share in the same Sami'-
hces—^which arc offcEcd when they cause
sickness to a famliy. ifars?*^ £iiru wlucli
is a general god amongst the Mu>i4^
appears as a family god amongst sstne
Birhof families who trace their descent
from a BirJtor anosstor who married a
Miifido wife.

tv. Gitoup-SFifiiTS OH Sdngi £It^-

These arc spirits sacrificed to by an
entire fstida or food-groups wh ether it be
a group of JagtUs or Iffltltis, The way
in wliicii these come to receive sacri¬
fices is as follows; When shortly after
taking up tJtdr residence temporarily (as
Ufhtuis ) or permanenUy ( as Jaghis ) in

314

The Birtton.

any locality, a Birhof group repeatedly
meets with failure in the chase or sufiFers
from sickness in their group, the tries
liis methods of finding out the hhvt or
spirit that is responsible for the trouble.
These methods generally are either what is
known as ZHth^iord or wliat is known as
KharirJ^a, In the Khari-hor5 process
w^hich is employed hrst, the msti sits down
holding witJi one imnd an axe placed upright
on the ground with its butt-end down¬
wards. He begins by sprinkling around
him rice-grains placed before him on a leaf
and goes on muttering invocations to
different spirits. The mdti goes on inter¬
rogating in a sing-song tone, "Say, who thou
art. Art thou such and such (names) a hhiU or
sucJi other (names) hhvi }" Thus he goes on
naming every lie can think of until
the axe and the hand placed on it begin
to shake and move. The name at which
this movement be^s is taken to be tliat
of the ^irit who lias caused harm and has
now possessed Ihc m8li. The spirit is now*
asked what sacrifices he would have, and

Processes of Spiril-jinding.

3!S

different sacrifices are similarly named.
The name at which the axe gives a jerk
and begins to move sJiarper and quicker
ts taken to be the sacrifice demanded.
If in spite of such sacrifices being offered,
the troubles do not cease, or revive after
a short interval, tlic AAai^fiora process is
repeated once or twice to find out if any
additional or more acceptable sacrifices
are wanted. H in spite of such sacrifices
Iiaving been offered, the troubles do not
cease, the Duh^hdrs process of spirit-finding
is tried once or twice. This process consists
in the ma/i taking some rice on a winnowing
basket and briskly rubbing them with his
I lands on the basket while muttering lus
invocations until he is poss<s^d by the
hhat responsible for the troubles. The
on being asked his name by some one
present reveals his name through the mouth
of the mStL Then tlie spirit is asked what
he wants. The spirit usually says. "Make
me a He is then asked "How

would you remain ?’’ Tlie bhil replies
wliat he would liave for his seat whether

316

The Birhofs,

a stone or a ivoodcn peg or a Jump ot
clay. Sometimes the names an mi-
ustial object such as a pair of iron-
chauis ( by whicli J found the god

MabSdeo represented by the Ludumba
clan men of a certain tands ). The
bhvt is then asked, "Wliat would you
Jiave to eat ?' Thereupon lie names, the
sacrilicc he desii'cs to have and the colour
of the fowl or pig or goat he covets. The
required seat ( clay tump, stone:, or wooden
[jeg, as the case may be f is accordingly
provided and the spirit is included among
the Bkits of the group. Naturally the
Iffftlu or migtatory groups of BirhvM who
are constantly moving from one tiilJ or
jungle to another, have many more of such
bhits than the jSgiu or settled groups
jjossess. These bhuts jointly aquired

by a group, as also the mdntU of the
dtficrcnl families of tlie group, altogether
constitute the hh^ of the group;

and once a year in the monlJi of Magh
( january-Febtnary ) the maU. of the fdtida
ofkus sacdiLces: to them to keep the

317

Sacrifices h Sangi Bhufs.

free fiotn sickness and amply provided with
Same and honey> Besides this fixed annual
sacrifice, they are also offered especial
sacrifices when an epidemic vfsite the ta»^
or its siirraundiiig country, Jaher Buri,
Moif iSTfif* Maij Dein, Dsrhs, Maitsdeo, and
several otlier deities, inctudinK those named!
above as mfljwffl clan-gods, are included
among the SSngi gods. In fact most of
these MSmta BhQts of families are the
Sangi BhQts of their clan xvJiich they carried
with them to the new taitda group they
subsequently joined. And consequently it
is the business of such feraiJtes to offer the
particular sacrifices required by such deities,
wJienas the fands as a whole gcnemJly
offer, in Magh once every year joint sacrifices
to all such Sartffi Mats. The required
sacrifices are collected by subscription from
all the families of the f&nda. Generally
tliey contribute two goats in the first
year, and four fowls in the next year for
each hunting net in the tmda and so on
in alternate years.

313 Tim Birtiors,

V. Indivedual Tutelary on SakH Bltiiis.

M is only the moti who takes to lumsctf
some particular deity such as MahMeo
as his Sahi hhUt. Sometimes it is in a
dream that this deity appears to the man
and he attaches himself to such deity*
Generally it is only after some traming
under an old matt that the novice
who has learnt the proper methods of
invoking the spirits and passing into the
trance state by swinging his head from side lo
side while muttering appropriate Invocations,
that he has a vision of the deity that will
help lum, and hxes upon him as his guaT'
dian deity. By unremitting devotion to
such deity and scrupulous Irabits of conti¬
nence and abstemiousness in diet, a rnUti
seeks to come into direct relations with the
spirit-world. He sometimes sits up wirole
nights concentrating his mind on his
guardian deity, muttering invocations to him,
burning the gum of ajii^lrees as incense
before the insible symbol of the deity, aod
at times passes into trance when his soul

Tutelary Deitks 0 / Individuals, S19

is believed to tempoTarily pass from the
physical world and function in the spirit-
ivorld. The devotion of some of these
maHs to their favourite deity is indeed
remarkable. Generally the object of the
partictiJar devotion of the Birhdf mstr is
cither Mahadeo or Msi. It is througli
communion with such powerful deities
that Uic wiiW; is believed to acquire power
to control other spirits. The sacrifices
required by the deity is duly offered at
fixed intervals by the votary. Besides the
principal deity to whose ser\fice the maii
devote-s himself, he also serves such deities
as are believed to be companions of or
somehow associated with that deity. Thus
i found at one tanda a who was a

votary of Maliadeo, also offering sacri6c(»
to M5i, Devi and Durga. In an enclosure
in his courtyard (anffan) there is one longish
stone representing MahSdeo furthest to the
north, and a little to the south of it is a
lump of clay representing Mai ( the mother-
goddess ), next to it are two other lumps
of clay representing and Durgii who

320

T/ie Bir/tors.

are 3 !dd to be daughters at Msi, Twice in
the year, once in the montti of and

ag^n in G&atf, the votary sacrifices one
black goat to Mahadeo and one red goat
to Mai, Devt and DurgS jointly.

The SsTtjri SAvls arc cluracteriaed as
Arftais^ifhuts at whose orders stray spirits
and minor will kill people or do them
other harm. Some SirMrif, it is said,
occasionally seek the help of the

to convert spirits of dead men or
animats into bhutA to wreak

vengeance on an enemy. The foUowtng
instances of this are interesting ^

A BirAof owned a sow whiclt was preg¬
nant. The sow having strayed into the
jungle, a cowherd shot her dead with an
arrow which remained sticking into its
Hesh. Tlic iJiVAor inquired of all the
people of the neighbouring settlements
as to who had killed his sow and declared
that he most realize from the culprit n
a sum of four rupees for the sow and
twelve rupees for the pigs in her vromb. As
every one denied having shot the sow,

Arhaia and NSsan Spirits, 321

Ihe Bifimr took the arrow to the thasn.
oT his ctan and made ddharsng of it by
placing it beside the symbols of the
at the thadn and sprinkling itniii
rice on itj and addressed the deities at
the ihasn saying, “Here I offer to you
twelve unborn pigs. Do yc deal with tlic
man who has dealt thus with these iKirts ® ®
(angs) of yours." Shortly after tins, not
only members of the family of the slayer
of the pig hut his cattle too died one
after another, fleas begait to infest his
house and cause sickness to his cattle.
In the end, one little boy remained the sole
surviving member of the family. This Imnn
was attributed to the souls of the pigs
which become Nssan-bh^s by order of
the SangidihHls., These Nssan bhUtSt
however, arc like double-edged swords,
as after having done away with their

»* Tki* lc«k» Uira M klaitiltoUikin of the MetifteCsor
vtetuiiB With the or npirft* to whom they Mii

322

The Biehors,

employer’s enemy they turn back upon
their employer himself unless they are
adopted as Mdnks^hhiit$—7t position
which all spirits covet. As an Instance
of the conduct of these the

following incident may be cited. A Birl^r
of the BAuiya clan had reared lac on some
trees; and dose to those trees he had
planted some vegetables called yonyrn.
A Birhof of a neighbouring fundti hap¬
pened to be passing that way and eased
nature under tJie tree and finally made
away with some of the lac and vegetables.
Shortly afterwards the owner of the lac and
vegetables came to inspect them and
unwillingly trod upon the excrement and
his feet slipped and he fell down. He
thereupon took up a little of the earth
covered over with hoar-frost on W'hich foot¬
prints of the thief could be discerned and
carried thisy^nya-dAvrJ ( dust of the feet)
to the thssn of his tdiidd and sprinkled
spts rice on it, appealed to the
saying—'*Go and punish the man who has
harmed me in this r^'ay". Two members

Ningdiha Blmts,

533

ol the thief’s family were killed by tigers
withii) a very short time> The same Nitsan
bhm, however, before long, caused deatli
to four members of his employer’s family*

VI. Minor Spirits or NitigdM bhuts.

Under this head may be classed the
remaining spirits who, whetlicr ‘personal’
spirits or elemental beings or impersonal
powers, do not receive regular sacrifices,
but depend for their nutriment on the off-
chance of sometimes extorting the sacrifice
of a fowl or animal from men by way-laying,
obstructing, or afflicting them. Some of
these spirits, as w’e have seen, at length,
succeed by a dogged persistence to get
admission into the rank of Tuanita spirits,
but the majority arc satisfied with ningchl^d
sacrifices once in a way. In this class arc
‘human’ spirits who are excluded from the
category of such as the Shells

or spirits of men whose u-ives died during
their menstrual period, KichtM or spirits
of women dying during menses, Barom-

324

The Birhors.

bhSts or spirits oi bachelors who kept
maidens in concubm^e, Muat or spirit
of persons dying of snafce'bite, Ginrim or
spirits of women dying during pregnancy,
and elemental spirits like the iSAf&aAmt
and £{ndi-£j^. Such of them as have
no fixed liabitation are known as BbDl^
or wandering spirits,

Unless accepted as ail ^irits—

and their name js legion—that reside in
upland and river, forest and mounhun
(fanptihir, garha^dhirhs, pa-

fiOr-parbtxt) are uingchhn Some

Spirits that are to some people

may be ningchhs-bhiU to others w’hen
egged on by some evil-minded person to
do harm to such others, Thus the ZJ'JrAii-
hhn. is a spirit that dwells in stones by the
side of some lowland or (Ion, and is a
wiantta^iAst to the owner of the land who
has to offer periodical sacrifices to the
S&rhii who is often represented by a piece of
bamboo planted by the side of the stonc^
For others, Darfa is a ningdiha hkm, so
that when any outsider cuts wood of trees

32S

Ningclthd Bliits.

by the side of Oie Diirha stone or eases
nature by its side, he is afflicted with
some sickness for the removal of which
the mn^c&Ad or expulsion ceremony has
to be performed with the aid of a nUJti,
On cxorcisuig a ningchhu bhiU, the ntdt^
gives chase to it usually up to some tree
to which it is transfixed (tA^ptia) with a
nail. Before nailing down die hhM, a
fowl or goat is sacrificed to it; and the
micturates there by way of a
liquor-offering, and draws a little blood
fram his thigh, trunk, hand and testacies

by pricking them with a thorn, st^s a
few grains of rice with this blood and
offers the same to the bhlL

VII, Mattiia Bhuts OF WOUEN,

Ordinarily, men alone arc entitled to
offer sacrifices to the spitits and liavc
personal relations, so to say, with tliem.

I have referred ( pp. 209-211 ante) to a
certain class of cases in which women
among the Bitiofs may have to offer

326

The Birhors.

sacrifices to certain spirits. This happens
when she eats the meat of the h^d of
an animal or fowl sacrificed to a spirit so
that the spirit is thereby drawn on to
her and begins to cause trouble to her¬
self and her family until she adopts the
spirit as a to be periodically

propitiated witfi appropriate sacrifices.
And, in this connection, it may be
noted tJiat even in cases where a mam-
ed BirJuf woman is entitled or required
to offer sacrifices to a spirit, it is her
husband wlio actually offers the sacrifices,
the iivifc merely sitting by his side while
this is being done. She will, however,
cat the meal of the head of the sacrific¬
ed fowl or ajiitnal whicli no man except
her husband may slraie with her. Her
daughters too may eat the meat, but by
doing so they attract the spirit to them¬
selves and render themselves liable to be
afflicted with illness or other calamity
unless they too take the spirit as their own
matiiia.

TwootJier methods by which a female

32 ?

ifSnilA Bituis of IVomcti.

may acquire a tnffniis bhut are by
accident or “luck" and by 'inlieriJance',
so to say, from her mother. I shall
explain and illustrate by concrete instances
how these methods actually work in
practice.

Thus, a .ffirAuf woman picked up from the
road a brass bcU which had dropped
down unnoticed from the neck of a bullock
employed in dragging a country cart, and
soon afterwards her daughter fell ill, and
a Timi or spirit-doctor was called in to
find out the cause of the illness. The
mail discovered by divination that the
mother of the girl liad picked up some^
thing made of metal which carried ivith
it a spirit called Bmjori-bhut, and that
the child could be cured only if she
n^de a manita of that spirit and perio¬
dically sacrificed a goat. She did so, and
the child was cured. And to this day
she along with her husband (a Birhof of
the Bhviya clan) periodically offers
sacrifices to the BanjOri-Bhut with a brass
bell placed before them as the emblem

S28

Tbe Birhors,

oi the spirit. The meat of the head of
the sacrificed goat can be eaten onJy by
the womanj her husband and her daugh¬
ters, but not by her sons who may oniy
partake of the meat of the goat’s
trunk and legs.

Wlien the mother dies, tlie spirit, thus
acquired by her by 'accident', will pass
to one or more of her daughters 'by lulieri-
tance' so to say, and they in tbeir turn
wilt thenceforth cherisJi the spirit as their
mmita unless they or any of them may
have already cominenccd doing so owing to
some illness in her family brought on by
the spirit,

A similar instance occurred in a famdy
of the Jefh Scria latha dan. A
woman who fell in love with a young
Btrltor of the name of Sobran (now an
old man) of the Jefh Serts lafhn dan
entered liis liousc carrying a pot of rice-
beer on her Jicad and they urere tlius
married in the bali baptd form. This pot
of liquor ijad been brewed at tlie
woman's fatlicr’s Jiousc on the occasion

329

JH/smia BMis of Wonun,

of the sacrifice to a female spirit calicd
3itit3m tor^ which was the

of tier mother; and it was found that the
spirit had come along with the rice-beer k>
the daughter's house. And so the Imsband
along with the wife have since been
periodically ottering aecrificcs to the
spirit. A leaf-cup filled with rice-beer
is placed before them and a sheep is
sacrificed and then the iiquor is dropped
from the leaf-cup on the spot where
tiie sheep has been offered. The meat
of the head of the sheep is eaten
by the woman and her husband and
also by tlieir daughters, if presenl.
As for the trunk, that half which

touches the earth wliile it is sc¥cred
from die head is eaten by the mem¬
bers of the sacrificcr’s family alone while
only the other half (tliat whicti is turned
upwards towards the sky) may be partaken
of by members not belonging to the
family. Three daugJiters were bom to
them; the first was married to a Jsghi
Birhor of the MnrHOi clan, the second

330

Tkc Birhors.

to a. Jaghi Birhof of the Hefj}Brdm clan
and the third to an Uphlv Birkor of the
Bkidt/a clan} and all of them have
'acquired' their nidnifd ffAit from their
mother, and offer (along with their hus¬
bands) periodical sacrifices to this iStdSm
ton^ hhut. Thus the manita spirit of a
BtrAdf female always 'descends', so to say,
in the female line. But the mdnits
spirit of the father’s family may also
under certain circumstances become the
mdnita of the daughter, as it also

happened in the case of the daughters
of old Sobran. Thus, when his
eldest daughter fell ill at lier father’s
place, the matt declared that her father’s
family mUnUa named (rurti Gosoin
possessed her and required appropriate
sacrifices from her. Then she made a
vow of making a mdnitd of this spirit,
and on her recovery offered sacrifices to
it As her younger sisters, then still
young, also partook of the sacriffcial meat,
they too have since acquired Cruru
as their second mSiata hhM,

Head of the ^crijidtU -JJl

Thus, as vtt have seen, whereas a
man can offer sacrifices boUi to the
spirits of his own family or clan, and loca*
lity, as also to the mdnita spirit of his wife, a
woman may not ordinarily offer sacrifices
to any spirit either of her fatliers side
or of her husband's side ; the only spirit or
spirits to which she can offer sacrifices are
those which she may liave acquired as
mSniia by way of either 'inheritance' from her
niother or by accident or luck. And tlic
right of eating the head of the sacrificial
Ti fiim al or fowl depends upon the right
of offering the sacrifice. The fact that
by partaking of ttie sacrificial meat and par¬
ticularly the meat of the head of an
animal or fowl sacrificed to a spirit, tlic
spirit itself is believed to poM on to
the eater, would appear to indicate tliM
the Birbofe conception of sacrifice is
that the sacrificed animal or fowl becomes
identified with the god or spirit, and by
eating the sacrificial meat or drink the
worshipper too becomes one with the
god or spirit. Tliis conception of sacn-

S32

Tli£ Birlt&rs.

Bee clearly broaght out by tlic fact
tJiat the act of saeri^ng fowls or grata
to the gods or spirits is generally des¬
cribed as wanskijipijtg the fowls or
goats tlicmsetvcs. This mode of expres¬
sion is customary not only among the
Birhors but among their neiglibours the
MS^as, OrOans and other tribes. Eating
the sacrificial meat and drinking the
sacrificial liquor arc also sometimes
spoken of as 'malcing pijB'. Thus, on
several occasions, when I found my

OrBoti or Mwt^a friends drinking ricc-bcar
in their hotises and asked them what they
were doing, they laughingjy replied that
they were making pija (worshipping
the spirits), thus clearly indicating that
drinking the sacrifidal liquor is in their
estimation equivaletrt to worshipping the
spirits. Beyond this, they do not appear
to have any explicit idea of communion
with the god or spirit by joining

with him in the consumption of tlie
sacrificial meat or sacrificial drink.

Sacrifici’s and Saerijicers. 333
HI.—Sagri/ices and Sachuhcebs.

In this section I shall describe the ritual
observed in the propitiation or conciliation
oi the different classes ofj BlrJtaf duties
and spirits with the object of securing
'luck' and avoiding niistoriuiic, and of
preserving, energising and ennobling life,
Pii/a-—As) for the Supreme
God, Sing-B6)}ga, there is no special sea¬
son or special ritual for sacrificing to
Him. When some serious calamity
threatens or visits a family, the head of
the famUf with his face turned to tlie east
offers a wliite fowl or a white goat to
Him and prays for succour. A wlutc fowl
is also offered to him by the Nay& on the
occasion of the annual SangwPi^a^ for
the protection of tlic yiiads from harm.
Devi Mai and other Mother-Goddesses
also receive sacrifices at the 5anff»--Pnja
berides special offerings to avert some
special calamity.

OfB^Bonga-PajA.—ThQ propitiation of the
guardian deity, the Ort>B^'i or 2?iru-

J34

The Birhors.

or each clan is esteemed by the
Birhof to be of paramount importance>
The sacrifice is offered on a Friday or
a Monday in the month of Pus or Msgh
(January-February) with tlie following
rites: On the day preceding the cere¬

mony, the head man of the clan living in
the brings a twig of the merel

(myrobalan) tree. The twig is dried
in tlie sun and burnt into ashes. A
loin-cloth of the man is cleaned by
boiling in water mixed with the ashes
of the myrobalan twig, and is laid out
to dry. The man remains fasting the
whole day. Members of the clan living
or encamping witliin some distance are
invited to join in the pitjs. The man
battles without smearing any oil on his
head or limbs, puts on the cloth cleaned
and dried the previous day. Then he
goes with his kinsmen and friends to the
spirit-hut, if any, of the clan, takes the
small bongn-peti or spirit-box co ntaining a
little vermilion in a Ha (snuff-box) and some
rice for the pujs kept in a bam-

Ora Bttttga Pu^a.

335

boo tube in which the Orfl-fiSnjfS is aJso
supposed to stop, and goes to an open
space a little further away from the huts.
His companions carry a knife, an axe,
the requisite fowls or goat, and some
rice for cooking a meal. The place is now
smeared by some man with cowdung or
mud diluted in water;—no woman is per¬
mitted to go there or witness the
ceremony. Different Ora-lUnffas require
different sacrifices. To the Ora-hoijgaa of
most of the clans, two fowls—one red
and one white—are offered ; those of the
GerCilf Shdmihoiaa, AtiSi and Khangar
clans require one goat each; the OrS-
hongd of the MUrvai clan requires one
fowl and one goat, and that of the
Nagpuria clan requires a bullock. On
the space cleaned with cowdung, a mystic
diagram with four compartments is drawn
with rice-flour. In one of the compart¬
ments is placed an emblem of ttie totem
of the clan, a bit of skin or horn of the
totem animal, or wing or feather of the
totem bird, such as has been already

336

The Birhors,

mentioned in detail ( pp. 102-106 etnte
When everything is ready for Uic sacrifice,
tlie man with his face turned in the
direction of the Jiill reputed to be the original
liome of his clan which is identified with
his vBfirtWwigd or Orit’bitiga, stands on
his left leg witli his right hec! resting
on his left knee, and, stretching his hand
forward, pours a little water three times on
the ground and invokes Uie spirit by name
and ptaysfor luck in liunting and physi-
cal tvell-being to the members of tlie clan,
He then sits down on one of the com-
partments of the rice-fiour diagram, . makes
three vermilion marks on the ground and
prays for health and abundance of game
to tlie clan. The head of each fowl is then
cut off with the knife, and the severed heads
placed on the ground, and blood from the
decapitated trunks of the fowls is dropped on
the heads. Then the heads are skimied and
cut up and mixed up witli rice and made
into a tump and roasted. Every male
member of the clan present scrapes off with
the nails of his lingers a little of this roasted

Offl Bonga PUja.

337

meat and offers it to the O/iJ-fiSftffa,
saying, ^'We offer this head to you; enjoy
this meat and drink; give us health and
luck in the chase." The men of the
clan eat tlic head then and there. Then
they besmear each his own face with oil.
The bodies of the fowls are then cut up
and dressed and boiled with rice as
khichri and eaten by the men of the clan*
If they cannot eat up all the iAwAri, wliat
is left over is burnt in the fire. Then the
party return to the Sngtui or open space in
front of the hut of the head of the clan.
On the way the latter goes ,on sprinkling
xvater on the path from a jug
until he reaches home. There he sprinkles
a little water here and there on all sides,
and a little at the door of the hut; the
rest of the water in the jug b sprinkled
in the Sding of hb hut xvherc the Jug is
finally left. The wife of the man now
fills the jug again with water, comes out
with the jug in her hand and washes
the feet of all the men who attended the
22

33S

The Birhors.

sacriBce. Each of fhc men then puts
a little oil first in his own ears, then over his
eyes and finally all over his body. If
any one omits this, particularly if his
liands and legs are not smeared with
oil before he visits other people’s houses,
the sacrifices wfill have no efficacy, and
he w'ill have to offer the sacrifices over
a^n.

The Uthlu clans, however, generally
offer pigs to their OrsionffOs, and the
pigs are sacrificed by the process,

that is to say, by striking them at the neck
with the butt-end of an axe. One Ufhh
fclan, known as the Mussed gotra, - ^ offer
sacrifices of either foxrls or goats to their

This cldD luuno hm bam omitted from Um list
lit jngtn SerSa aitU. The oUn appniv to Iimo
origiiuiled frotn tluj tinion of a Mjmamcdiii with
ft Mihsi womatu Tho cliui is found in tins
Bagntundi thdnd of tbft ItfAiibhimi Dwtritt, and
ftlsg in the Tftmiir tUnd of Ibe B&nchi DMTiGt.
Two other cluiiB w'how nhmefl iiftyo been, oiiiittod
in die liat ftra tho TSdfi, I hftve ajroe

Kciftiffl thw ekem I41WO the booh went to tho
pnwfl.

ilaniM Botigs PnjS, 339

‘Ofa-bongas by the jt^di process (with
two and half strokes of a weapon} in
the nianner of the Muhanuimdans.

jSocr^ces ta ihs Manila deitiesi ,—Except
sacrifices to the TfUtnitd-hdngas of women,
of which I have spoken in section fl,
sub-section (lx ] above, sacrifices to other
Manila bdngaa are offered by the head of
the family or clan which has accepted
them as at' such interv'als as

have been agreed upon for all time. Thus,
in one I found the LudanAa gotra

men offering annually one white goat to
Sipahi bhat, two pigs to Bir-Bdnhe, one
red goat to Anartd Singh and Cldiunnat
Singh jointly, one red goat to LUgi Fahar,
one black goat to Mai, one black virgin
she-goat to DindaAetit and one speckled
fowl to the family Baghout spirit.

Sacrifices to Sangt Shuts .—All the mSniUt
Shuts of the different families of the f^da
who have their seats at the ihaans of the
settlement together with such as the
fanda have made their common
receive annually cither in the month of

34a

The. Birkors.

Magh (January J, or, failiog tliat, in Asurli
( JuLy ) a joint sacTi6ce of not less than
twelve fowls ia one year and two goats in
the following year and so on in eich alternate
year. Each family, as I have already said,
contributes four fowb for each hunting
net onucd by it, and to meet the price of tlie
two goats a proportionate subscriptioii is
collected by the Eotwar from each family.
The Niiya ofiiciates as the saciificcr. Ati
open space at one extremity of the
is cleaned by smearing it with cowdung
or mud diluted in water hy a woman of
the NayS's family who after ablutions
goes there with water in a new earthen
vessel. After thus cleaning the spot she
places on the ground thus cleaned a new
sup or winnowing basket containing about
a wer (two iba.) of drtt«J rice, a little
vermilion, a little salt; a few pieces of
turmeric and a few chillies, and goes away.
The Nfiya holding another sup in his liand
now goes to the ihsihv and leaves it there
and then goes to bathe in some stream or
spring. On his return, he takes the

PIttte XXVIll. — A BirliGf ov priust.

J41

Sdn^ Boaga Pvjs,

and, accompanied by the mas*, goes to the
place where sacrifices arc to be oftered,
and there asks the maSt to put himself in
his acenstomed hypnotic state. The mail*
goes on muttering his vMntras ontU he
begins to swing his head and

works himself up into something Hke a
frenzy, when he is believed to be possessed
by some spirit. The NayR now places a
little rice from his winnowing basket on
the palm of tiic fnatt’a hand and asks
him, “Who art thou The msti, or rather
the spirit that has possessed him , replies—
''I am such and sneb a ( names )* *.
Then the N^s tells him, "Do thou exa¬
mine the rice and see whether the sacrifices
wc arc going to ofier on this day of
{ or /CsdfA, as tlic case may
be) will bring ns luck or not Thou
art a spirit and, of course, seest future
events.” The spirit through tlic

** (joienilly it la iatfam* ibiJSipSiu ibSt, at or

UaJuldao^ or DdtI, irita Ja MUaml to poaaB tbo
OD tnicll mv-iKiin^

342

The Birhors.

mouth of t]:c mflii says, "Come, boys, it
will be all right Begin your sacrifices.
You will have notliing to fear." It is said
that on such occasions, the foOli or rather
the spirit that comes to him invariably
predicts success. The goat or fowls to
be sacrificed are next brought to tlic mdti
for examination. ' The tells him,

"Examine these too : sec wliether they
arc sound or not, and whether they will
please the deities." The fUdfi takes up
In his arms one of the fowls or the
goat, as the case may be, and says,—
"Go to; these are all right; begin your
sacrifices." Now the Nsya takes a little
water in iiis right hand and sprinkles it
on the head and body of each of the goats
or fowls. He next puts three marks of
vermilion (stndur) on the ground and
a smeZicr mark on tlie head and a s»n<2«n
mariv on each of the two boms of the
goats; io the case of fowls a aiwiiir mark
is made on the head of each. Now the
Naya with his face turned to the cast
and with one of the goats or fowls, as tlic

343

BOft^ Puja.

case may be, in his arms stands on his
left leg with the right leg crooked behind it.
He prays, “To-day in this month of Magh
( or Asaih ) we are offering the proinised
(mUnits) sacrifices to alt the Sangi
May the fSiidd remain in health and Iwppi-
ncss. May no disease or other evil enter
the tsii^S"* He tJien squats on the pound
puts down the goat or fow’l on his left,
and asks all the villagers to sprinkle rice.
The other goats or fowls, as the case may
be, are placed by the side of the former. All
present sprinkle on the victims rice from
the si^- Then the Nays invokes all the
gods and spirits whose names he can
call up, and prays,—^“To-day in this
month of Magh, (or Asarh) we call upon you.
Oh Sdngi do ye command and

control (hankao, dahOo) all from out¬
side (upns chapria). You verily are the
masters (miUih, t. e,, over Otlier hhiis).
Do not allow disease and calamity to
approach the Then tlic victims

are offered up by cutting their throats
with an asc in the case of goats and with

344

The Birhon.

a knife in tltc case oE fowls. The red
goat “"is sacrificed before the black one.
Each victnn's head Is put .down on the
grotmd, a little blood from the body is
dropped on the head, and then more blood
is poured on a leaf-cup. When most of
the blood in the body has been thus let
into the leaf-cup, tlie body is put aside.
The other victims are dealt with in turn
in the same way. Then the heads of the
sacrificed goats or fowls are taken up, tlic
hair on them is burnt, and the meat
chopped into pieces. In the case of tlic
goats, ttic brams of the red ones are mixed
with ffrua rice and wrapped up in two
sil leaves and roasted by placing burning
cJiarcoaJ above and under this bundle.
The roasted brains are taken to the spot
where the sacrifices were offered and a
little of it is taken with his nails by the
iVoyff and offered to the
while offering it, the says,“Here

” IsxJUiryS, juid Uto]

uUck QUO for K.ML

345

Bon^ PujA.

i ofier you the head and neck ^wwft-
J^'sidi) o( the goats. We shall eat it and
so wilJ you too." Here is an indication
of the BiVAcJr'a CDnccptioil of communmn
wth the god or spirit by 'eating
him’; and we have seen at pp. 331-2 an
indication of his conception of 'eating
the god.’ Only the JVaya and the men
ills clan in the f^idu may cat this
roasted brain "witj; the gods." The flesh
of the head of the red goat is boiled in
water with flrua rice and a bttle oil and
turmeric. This too may be eaten only
by the and the men of his own clan in
the t&itda. The entrails, lungs and heart
of the victims can be eaten only by the
women of the clan. The rest of

the flesh of the red goat as also the flesh
of the head and body of the black goat is
divided among alt the families of the
including the family, and th^ take

their respective shares home. The fowls
sacrifleed to the Sd,n^rbMts are dealt with
in the same manner as die black goat.
Except in certain cases mentioned in

346

The Birhon.

section III t ix ) above, women may on no
account partake of the meat oI the head
either of any fowls or goats or other ani¬
mals offered to any spirit or even of those
obtained by hunting, although tliey may
cat the meat of fowls or animals purcliased
from outside the sacrificed

to any dcityi The as 1 have

said, arc characterised as or spirits

possessing^power over other spirits.

S(icnfices to Ni^chha JJ/itfs.—Witli the
exception of some minor ailmenta, mo^t
of the ills that flesh is heir to, is attributed
by the Birhof to Uic action of spirits or
other extra-human powers and energ^^es.
In all cases of sickness, the assistance of
the mdti is sought; and he finds out either
by the Khari-hord or by the
process described above, or by rubbing a
little oil on a sol leaf and looking in it for the
reflection of the ifttit which is responsible
for the illness. If it is a hhSt of the
family who is found to liave caused the
trouble, the customary sacrifices to him
are offered. If, however, it is a bhi^ from

Sacrijica to Blmts. 347

outside the house, Uie maii dcciarcs from
which direction of the compass it has come
and indicates the number and colour of the
fowls it requires. The niugchl^ ceremony
is now performed by tire rfioU in the follo¬
wing maimer. He takes up each fowl,
waves it tliree times round tlie head of the
patient, places some Aria rice on the
extended palm of the patient’s hand, and
the fowl is made to eat a little of this rice.
The mdt* orders the fowl, saying,—“So
long you liave given trouble. Get hence
from to-day. Here are offerings for you.
Do not give further trouble.” The mnti
with a companion now takes die fowl in
tlic direction from which the afflicting
spirit is believed to have come, to the
common boundary of two settlements or
villages. While the mSti goes out of the
hut of tlic sick man, the latter throws away
tlic rice remaining in liis hand in the
direction in which the goes witli the
fowl. Arrived at the boundary of two
settlements, the sits down with his
face to Ihc cast, puts three marks of

34S Tltc Biritors.

vemniion on the ground, and drop« grains
of licc over the head of the fowl. While
Ihc fowl cats the rice as it falls on the
ground, the kills the fowl by twisting
its head with his hands. Tiic head thus
tom 00 from the body is placed on the
ground, and blood from the body is dropped
over it by the ntstf while he addresses tlie
spirit thus,—"To-day I offer thee this
( sacrifice ); do not come to so-and-so'^s
( names ihc head of tlie sick man's family )
iiousc again. If thoo comest again to the
house, corse (ti^} be on thee." Now the
stands up with his face turned fn the
dtrcction of the and with legs apart,

and through the space between die two legs
throws away the decapitated body of the
fow'l behind fmn in the direction from
which the bh^ is supposed to have come.
Thus is the spirit driven away; and the
miui makes orator on a leaf-cup, and pours
tlie urine from the cup on the severed bead
of the fowl, saying — ^"Here is liquor for
thee. Do not approach the sick man
agmn," The body of tlie fowl (or fowls J

349

Driving oivay Spirit.

is now taken away by tbe inati and his
companion to some place other than that
of the sick man's hut, roasted and eaten.
Here ag^n wc see the sacrificial fowl
identified witli the spirit itself.

When the tndni’a hhil of some other
family is found by the tiUtU to have caused
the trouble, the sacrifices required by the
6A«t are provided, a:ld the mnii after
waving tJiem three limes over the head
of Uie patient and making them eat rice-
grains from the hands of the patient as
described above secretly takes out tJie fowls,
kids them by twisting their lieads, and
leaves the severed heads near tJie hut
of the family whose bhUt caused the
sickness.

Unwnff airoy spirks by force,—Another
method by which a viSii detects and drives
away a mischievous spirit not belonging
to the is this. The ms/ti with a cane

in hand goes to bed thinking of the spirit
which is causing illness, and then in a
dream he sees the bhut and at once gets
up and chases it out of the village.

350 T/ie Birhors.

jv. Feastts and Festivals*

The Uthlu section of the Birhorst whose
time is entirely taken op in the quest for
food and precautions against the conse¬
quent dangers from natural and supernatural
sources, have no leisure to indulge in
regular religious festivals. From years
end to year’s end they are in a state of
almost constant anxiety for securing food.

But even an JUrhif both before

he proceeds in the food-quest and after he
secures the desired food, takes care to
propitiate the spirits whose good iivishes
or at any rate absence of iU-will, arc
considered essential to success in this
as in every other affair of life. Thus,
Birhi^a of the K4w5n clan, who are
mostly Uthlus, before they begin digging
for yams and tubers strike the ground
three times with their axes and invoke
their clan-god or Hill-god (Bnra binga)
known as or the yam spirit

(in imitation of the crow'ing of a cock )
by uttering the queer cry of “K0k-ro-ch«,"

Plate XXIX.—Birho^f adult male
(Front view). [Liipimg dan]^

Feasts and Festivals^ 351

and pray lo the spirit for plenty of yams
and tubers j And alt Birhdrs, Uthlu as
well as Jaghi, as soon as they have gathered
honey must offer to the ChowrSsi hap^dm
and other spirits a few drops of honey
and minute grains of pollen or other
matter ( which they call remnants of honey*
flowers ) found in the cells of tlie comb.
It is believed that if tliis is omitted, they
mil have no success in honcy^gatiiering
in future.

We have seen in a previous chapter
how before proceeding on their hunting
expeditions, tffhlis as well as Jiighis
invoke the spirits and offer water and rice
to them to ensure success, and how when
any game is bagged, its liver (ihim) is
roasted and a bit of the roasted liver is
offered to the spirits. Again, as soon as
a deer is killed, a number of affi leaves
are tinged with its blood by the Dig^tar
and handed over to the JVhyar wlio puts
down on the ground by way of an offering
one blood-stained leaf in the name of each
spirit; and finally the man in W'hose net

3S2

The Birhars.

the tker has been caught distributes
powdered tobacco and lutic to every other
itieinber of the party: And this they
call ‘the feast of the slain deer*.

While UfhlA BiritofS cannot indulge in
die limiry of more elaborate religious feasts
than this, the Jaghisy particularly tlioac
amongst them who have taken to regular
cultivation of land, are in a better
position. They enjoy periods of respite
from incessant struggle for existence,
w'hen hopeful anticipations of plenty of
food or the actual acquisition of such
food make tJiem rejoice, and- by way of
thanks^ving and expression of tlieir joy-
fulness and also with a view to ensuring
future good luck and avoiding bad luck
in agriculture, they celebrate certain
periodical festivals which they have adopted
from their more clviliaed neighbours
and congeners, the and the fiuniafa

These festivals or paribs are the Soso-
B^a and Nawajdm festivals in the month
of AsSfh (July ), the KarmiL and JitiS in
the month of JJAado (September J, Dctsrd

Feasis avci Festivals. 353

in Awivin ( October } and Soh^oi in Kartik
( November). These festivals have rnot
all been accepted by every Jdghi group.
As I have already noticed in chapter fV,
some clans have adopted a few festivals
but not the others, and otlier clans have
accepted one or more of these festivals
but not the rest. Thus I have found
fatnilies of the Sltdmjhaioa and MSriim
clans observing only the Katam atwf Sdliorst
festivals but not the Jitia nor the Dusm
parotts. A number of families of the Latha,
(^UhiH Membrom, NagpUria, Mahali, and
Gidhi chins have adopted the Karma but
not the other festiifals. A family of the
Andi clan that I know lias adopted the
Jitia and Sohordi festi^^s but not the
Karms and the Dasai pitiviba. One family
of the Hembrom clan that I know has
adopted the Sasai but not the other
festivals and certain families of the Bhni^a^
Khonffar and GefSa clans who own cattle,
Jiavc adopted the Solidrat but not the
other three festivals. The spirits to whom
23

354

The Birhors,

sacrifices or offerings arc made at these
festivals generally fall under the category
of hhiit^. Thus any person frorn

wliom Uie Karuia Ihat or the Dasai hhfit
demands sacrifices in dreams or by causing
illness or other calamity makes a msnita
of the hh^tt in some instances, one or
other of these festivals come to be adop¬
ted by a family through some accident.
Thus, one of my Sirhdif friends of
the Andi dan had a son bom to him
on the day of the Jitin festival,
and he accordingly named his son as Jifr*
and for the luck’ of the son took to
celebrating the annual Jitia festival. After
a few years, however, he omitted to cele¬
brate the festival for two successive
years. In the third year, on his way back
from a journey, he was attacked in the
jungle by a wild bear but escaped with
his life, though badly mauled. Then he
consulted a spiritfinder as to the cause
of the mi.shap \ and he learnt that it was
the i/fiiff hhitt who thus punished him for
neglecting his pvjii. And thenceforward

Plate XXX-^ — Profile of the man hi tbe
[1 receding plate.

.1 I

^ ,i» vtwW

•^.■v. **. '‘v^ s**' ■'

The SosO’Bongd FesUvaL 35S

the annual jitiii festival has been regularly
celebrated in the family. As for the
Siihdrai festival, any family that comes to
own cattle must observe it. All the landed
Jtighi Bwhofa that I have known have also
adopted from the MvJtdOs and other neigh¬
bours the Soso Bdnffd and the Nawajuni
festivals. The rites observed in these
festivals are given below.

The Sosa-Bmgii festivaL —One evening
in Asa^?t (July ), after transplantation of
the paddy seedlings is finished, the head of
each of the few Jaghi Btrhof families that
have taken to wet paddy cultivation brings
a few branches of the soso (sefnicarpts
anacardium) plant and calls in a person
who has learnt the details of the ceremony.
The courtyard (angan) of the house is
cleaned with \vater mixed with cowdung,
and the figure of a square is drawn \uth
lice-hour in one part of tlte Around

the square on each side of it three or five
figures of the shape of petals of flowers
are drawn with coal-dust; and above each
of these petals two similar petal-like

356

The Birhors.

figuras are drawn one above another, the
middle row with red earth and the upper *
most row with coa]-dust A wiimowing
basket (sip) with a hen's egg and a twig
of the SOSO plant on it is placed before him.
The man now recites the Astir legend and
at tlie same time goes on robbing the rice
on the 9wp with his hand. At the end
he calls upon the Evil Eye to give up its
victims. The yolk of the egg is offered
to and mixed with rice and

bated. Next morning one of tiie syaS
branches is planted in the manure pit
of the cultivator, and one in each of his
cultivated fields to ward off the Evil Eye
from the crops.

Naiva Jotu.—^T his is the ceremony of
eating the New Rice. On the morning
following the i^sd-bongd festival, the owner
of the fields, on his return from the fields
after planting the soso branches, bathes
and comes home. In tlie meanwhile lus
wife has cleaned the dngan again \vitli
cowdung and water and gathered some
fresh leaves and some new upland

TliC NaxisSJorn FiistivaL 357

(gofii) rice rrotn a neighbour's field,
threshed the rice and made cAiufS (flattened
rice ) of it. A little milk in a jug or cup,
some cKwfS, on smo leaves, and molasses
(g^) and clarified butter (ghi) on leaf-
cups, are placed in the ilnga/f^ where Uic
man first takes up the jug of milk
ill his hand in a standing posture goes on
dropping the milk on the eMufi placed
on tlic ground over snsd leaves. As he
drops the milk he prays ,—Sirmart Sing
Bongs tikingdo eniisnsing k^um* Ne
Jomeme. Zor hmii boho-hasu bstiua tihing,
ate, etc.” Thou SihglSnga in heaven, to¬
day I am giving (Thee ) milk ( lit., mllk-
fiower ). Eat ( drink ) this. From to-day
may there be no sickness in stomach or
head." A little chiufa is also offered to
the ancestor-spirits (Birha^Burhi) by put¬
ting the chtufO on awio-Icavcs at the Oding^
Then all cat new chiufa and drink rice-
beer. A screen is bung over the spot in
the stigan where the offerings to Singhonga
were made. In the afternoon when rice
lias been boiled, and meat of fowl cooked

358

The Birhors.

a little of tills rice and meat are offered
to the Burh&Burhi to the ading by the
head of the family. Then all the members
of the family and any friends who may
liavc been invited partalce of tlie feast
The lcai*plates on which they have eaten
are stowed away in a comer of the hut.
When in the evening the canopy lias been
removed from the these Icaf-plates

are thrown away in the Sngan.

The Deisai This festival is

celebrated in the month of Aswin. The
sacrificer and, if possible, otlier adult
members of the family remain fasting the
whole day and night; goats are sacrificed
at the family thaon.

The Kara/m J’estit'o/r^Thc A'btmm
festival La held on the clcventli day of the
moon in the month of A £araf»

^dtnci co^ifolUn branch is brought to
the where it is ceremoniously

planted. And tlic story (kaJtdm) of the
two brothers Jfamni and ZlAamm is recited
by some one who knows it by liearl.

The Jiti^ Feeitvul .'—This is celebrated

Thcjifii Festival*

359

annuaHy twelve days after the Karam
festival. The head of the family and his
wife retnain fasting the whole day. The
man plants in his dtiyan a branch of JUid
pipar tree (ficus rdigioaajf and the branch
of the sekrB or tree, and a twig of the
tnoAuS (hassia tatifolia} tree, a bamboo
and a sugarcane all tied together with a
stravtr rope in their middle, Tlic Jitia
KdlUm is recited by some one who knows
it, preferably by a if available.

Ofierings of GidatcJii flower, bad (Aegle
marmegos) leaves, 3nia rice, milk, molasses,
clarified butter (ght), rice-flour cakes
(jnths), and flattened rice (ciUura} are
offered to tbe JUin branch and its associ¬
ates.

COTdCLL'SlON.

Such in brief is a rough outline of the
religious ideas of the Btrho^s as 1 liavc
understood them and their religious prac¬
tices as 1 have observ'cd them,—some, when
they were being actually performed, and

360

The Birhors.

others, by making tJic men enact iJic cerC'
monies for my benefit. The Impression
borne in upon me by aJl that I have seen
with my eyes and heard from the people
tlicmselvcs is that their religion is concerned
witli beings who in certain cases arc to
tJicni not vague impersonal powers or
energies but conscious personal agents as
real and Jiving to them as their own
selves. Rislcy's characterisation of the
religion of the Chota Kagpur aboriginal that
in most cases the indefinite something
which Uiey fear and attempt to propitiate
is not a person at all in any sense of tJie
word a{q>cars to be only a part of the
truth. These impersonal powers, though
they do indeed occupy much of the
Jiirhdfa tJiought and attention, are the
subject-matter of the magical side, so to say,
of their religion, to which tliey assign a
comparativ'cly subordinate part in the direc¬
tion of human affairs. True, they conceive

= * hetiort nf [[iq GoufiUfl of Indift, V^l. i, Purt

L pt

Catidusion.

S61

of themselve.^;, as Ri$ley says^, as 'passing
tluough life surrounded by a ghostly com¬
pany of impersonal powers, elements and
tendcnci^/' it is no less tnie, however,
that what at present causes them greater
concem is not these impersonal or Don-
personal powers or energies which are
amenable to control but tliose real personal
beings whose name is legion and between
whom and themselves a never-ceasing trial
of stcngtii is ever silently going on. When
the power of such a spirit proves too strong
for man, a promise is made to provide
him regularly with food to sustain his
powers, and the Birhor enters into personal
relations with him, provides him with food
calculated to sustain and increase Itts
strength and “eats with him"—partakes
of a communal feast—to increase and
strengthen his own soul-stuff. The more
fortunate persons in the tribe can enter
into direct communion with them In dreams
and trances when their inner eyes “in a
hne frenay rolling" have vivid visions of
the spirits. These persons known as Mstie

362

TJtc Birhors,

or IkonfSa arc believed to have attained, in
a more or less degree, whai the Birhor
regards as tJie ^mnutn homtm of life'^the
power to control and direct the im^i«Titonal
energies and powers and tlie stray

ptrsoTud powers,—secure the good¬
will of the more important personatizod
powers or spirits. A study of the religious
ideas and practices of the tribe thus appears
to indicate that the reli^ous consciousness
of the Sir/iofs consists in a continual sense
of the presence all around them of super¬
physical and semi-spiritua] 'personal' powers
and impersonal energies; tlieir religious
sentiment consists mainly in a sense
of fear in some cases approactiing 'awe*
in the presence of such powers and ener¬
gies, and a consequent sense of mysterious
'sacredness'; their religious rituals liave
for their object the propitiation and conci¬
liation of these pcraonal powers of various
grades of potency and 'sacredness* so as
to secure *luck' and favoid misfortune,
to themselves their family and their
—to1 prevent disease and dearth

Coiicliisiott.

363

of food, and to energise and ennoble life
by eating the sacrifidal meat which they
appear to consider as equivalent to
''eating the god" j and their magical, or as
they are sometimes termed, ms^co-
reli^ous rites aim at securing greater
strength to themselves to repel the evil
influence of the harmful lesser 'personal'
powers and impersonal energies and at
ridding ttiemsclves of these malevolent
powers and keeping tliem out of harm's
way by threats and tricks and spells.

CHAPTER X.

Magic and Witcb*Craft, Oman sand
Diaams,

In the last chapter, I discussed the
Birf^fs conception of spirits and other
cxtra-liuman and super-normal entities
and powers that arouse his 'religious sense';
and I further described the methods of
placation and propitiation, prayer, sacrifice
and ritual feast tliat the tribe has adopted
with the object of entering into some
sort of harmonions relations with the more
important spirits and the methods of
cajolery, trickery and intimidation adopted
to delude or scare away or control the
lesser spirits so as to secure good luck
and avoid bad luck to the community, tlic
family and the individual. In the present
cliapter, [ shall gjve a brief account of
the rites and practices, spells and taboos
by which the Birhor seeks to attain the

Magic & Wilch-Crafi, Omens & Dreants. 365

same ends e liber by utilising or avoiding
some magiod virtue supposed to inhere
in certain material objects or in certain
pantomimic or other practices or in certain
words or spells, or through the help of
certain impersonal powers or energies which
the Birltaf magician thinks he can set
in motion through appropriate actions to
further his own ends or those of his
clientele or community. We have already
seen (pp, 108-109 ante ) liow some
magical rites can be performed eSectually
only by men of certain clans.

Ordinarily a maii or magician is bom
and not made. Some men are from
childhood more sensitive to supernatural
influences than others. And such a sen^
sitivc person acquires either in a dream
or a trance a familiar spirit or a tutelary
deity by u'hom he is instructed as to the
proper method of its propitiation. It is by
the aid of such a spirit or deity tliat the
mati is enabled to ply his art.

Any man may, however, be initiated
by an expert into the mysteries of the

366

The Birhars.

Tni^^ of & matiao or the inagtc art.

Kitrif"*-'" disciple, like his mas¬

ter, is required to remam fasting on
Sundays till noon, wJien lie lias to make
offerings of hael leaves and gviaichi
Sower, and burn Incense in honour
of M<AadeQ, Special rules of diet liavc
also to be observed. A woman whose
tongue is black is believed to possess
an innate power of bewitching any
person by simply staring at him.

But witch-craft, as an art, is rare amongst
the Birho^s, Such wizards or witches
as exist amongst them are believed to
hann a person by throwing some rice
in the direction of that person’s house
and inciting their familiar spirit to move
in that direction and afflict the person
witli some disease or other trouble.

t. Magical Practices to control
THE Elements.

1, In tlie collecting stage of economic

J’Jate XXXI.—TyjiK of Birlidi' {Fn»U.
view.) [Liiptjijg diiti].

StoppiffS Raiv.

367

cnltare^ continual rain is octrcmely unde¬
sirable, The traditional
Steppiaf Bain magical practice by which
tlie seeks to stop

rain is as follows :—The youngest member
(whether minor or adult) of a family
puts some mcthna (Bama laiifdia) fio-
wers into an earthen jug, fills it mth water
and covers up ib mouth with a leaf of
the Bdru-yam, which is tied up 'with a
string passing round the neck of the jug,
and tlien buries the jug in a hole dug in the
ground. The hole is then covered up
with earth. It is believed that this is
sure to stop rain. Birhdfs do not, like
their Idunda neighbours, set up in the
angan a plough with the plough-handle
pointing upwards with the object of stop¬
ping rain.

2. At the sound of thunder or at the
sight of flashes of lightening, a BirhSf
woman throws a husking
Ll|hSSS|. pestle into the open space
in front of her hut with
tlic object of preventing thunder from

368

The Birliars^

bursting and passing from the clouds io
the eartli.

3. Tlie Birhof believes that a child bom

of a mother who has not had the mens-
truous flow before conception, attracts

lightening towards itself ; and Birhor^

will keep at a distance from such a person
when lighten ing-ilashes are seen or the
sound of thunder is heard. Such a child
is know'n as a During a thun-

der-stoirn, such a person wears at tiis
Wiust a rounded pebble which is believed
to prevent tiglitening from coming near
orliatming him.

4. Birhof wom^ also throw a busking
pestle on the STtgan when liigh winds blow

or hail storms occur, and
ihis is said to make the

W'ind abate its violence and
liail-stones to cease falling. It Is believed
Uiat Bhir Dhir Bancho Fsuf oH is the spirit
that presides over such storms, and tliat it
is tliis spirit of Herculean strength who
uproots big trees and sweeps away tlie
Bif'hor'.'i leaf'lmls during storms. As Bir-

rintfs XXXII.—Profile of tlie !joy in llie
precoiJitig^ Plate.

Slopping Storms.

369

hits of the Jegseria Lsfha clan in particular
sacrifice to this spirit at their thasns or
spirit-scats. Storms, it is said, always abate
their force when approaching a settlement
or encampment of this clan. And wlicn
high winds threaten the safety of 'their
settlements, BirJiSrs of other clans too
invoke Bhir Dhtr Pcnich Pon^a and pour
libations of water to tins spirit at their
praying,'—*'Do not ipuU down our
poor leaf-huts; leave us in peace and para
on to otlier villages and towns where people
liavG brick-lioiu^s and substantial buil¬
dings".

As Uic BirJtdrSt as a tribe, have not
yet taken to agriculture, they scarcely
feel the need for seasonal
Saintaaking' rains. Those few Jaghi
families amongst them who
have secured lands for cultivation have
adopted from their Munds neighbours their
magical rain-making ceremony which is as
follows; Early in the morning, they go
up llic nearest hill and push down stones
24

37a

The Birbors.

of ail abes which produce a rumbling
noise in falling to the ground; and this
noise is at the same time intensified
by beating a drum so as to produce a
low, heavy, continued sound in imitation
of the pattering of rain on the roofs of their
Iiuts.

iL Magical Phactices to Control
Animals, &c.

1. When a Birhof'^ dog strays, he puts
into a leaf-cup the refuse of boiled rice

from his plate, and places
* the leaf-cup over the eaves
of his hut on a Sunday
night and calls out the dog by name three
time:. After this, it is believed, the dog is
sure to return home before long, whither*
so-ever it may have strayed,

2. To remove the pest of bugs (moe)

the Birhof smokes his
burning the wood
moaqultos. of a tree struck by light¬
ning.

lHagical conlrot over aniimt life. 3?t

3. When the Birhofs hut Is infested
with mosquitos (einkn)^ as generally hap¬
pens in August, he places a lump of
boiled rice on the roof of his hut just
near the eaves, and calls upon the BhaSfi
bhnt 1 Mosquito-spirit) saying,—"Here is
offering for thee ; do not come inside the
hut any more". Here we Jiave religion
rather than magic proper.

4. If a snake of the species known as
Jamfi^bing ( Hindi, dhm.na sitp J passes
Ihrongh a field bf the janAe millet

lum 3crobicalaiwn)t the grain when boiled
and eaten will cause intoxication. To pre¬
vent this, the Birhor roasts some mustard
seeds and throws them in the direction
wluch the snake has taken. By doing so,
the intoxication, it is believed, is transferred
to tlie snake. As instances of imitative
magic connected with animal life the
following may be mentioned

(1) A Birhdr must not leave a rope or
string hanging from tlie eaves of his hut.
Should he do so, a snake will enter the
hut.

The Birhors,

ST2

(2) A JSirhdf like a SSntSl, must not
wear a plaited loin-string. Should he do
so, he will be bitten by a snake.

m. Macical Practices to control or
affect Homan Beings,

1, When a BirhSr unshes to win the
affections of a person of the oppoate sex,

he gathers the roots of
two plants named respec¬
tively as JoffTTiohani and
Chandoa, pounds them and mixes them
together, and then with the help of an
intermediary called ffilhi, manages to mix
this magical medicine with some artide
of food for the beloved person, It is
beUeved that as soon as this food is taken,
the latter will feel an irresistable attraction
for the person on whose behalf the spell
is used.

2. In order to cause death or sickness to
an enemy, an U^thbi BirAdf takes up some

3rua rice in his hand
CinaiM and invokes his JViwan

“ spirit and throws the rice

n eaimy.

in the direction of the

Atagicai control 0 / Plant Life. 373

house of the enemy, at the same time
exhorting the spirit to go in that dircoticn
and afflict the enemy.

IV. Magical Practices to Control
Plant Life.

1. In order to secure an abundant
crop of maize, ^indli (Tafticum miliart}
and the like, the head of a Birh»r family
performs the following magico-religious
rites. On the evening of the full moon
of the month of Baisakh (April-May), some
member of the family catches a small
fish from a neighbouring stream or pool,
brings it home and keeps it in a jug of
water. Next morning the space in front of
the door of the hut is smeared witli a
coating of mud or, if available, cowdutig,
diluted-in water. On this space bkept
a gi^ida 'or low wooden stool besmeared
mth rice-Bour and marked with three
marks of vermilion on the side turned
towards the west. A bamboo badeet pain¬
ted all over with duck white iin^ of. dec-

374

The Birhors.

flour and spotted with three red marks of
vermilion^ is placed above the gsii^u.
Inside this basket is placed a wooden
paUa ( grairi*measure ) similarly besmeared
with ricc-flour suid marked with tliree
marks of vermilion. In the wooden paila
is kept a liandful of seed-grains. If the
family had rice eultivatioa in the prece¬
ding year, tlicse seed-grains are taken
from the paddy or paddy of

the last sfieaves which were left over at
one comer of a field while the rest
of the paddy was reaped and ceremonially
cut on a Friday evening.

Water of the jug in which the fish was
kept overnight is sprinkled all over the
housc^ and also on the seed-grains, on the
basket, the and the paila. Tlic

head of tJie family sits before the low stool
fgSiidu) witli his face to the east, feeds
a white fowl ivith some sms. rice placed on
the ground and makes an 3gam or vow to
Sifig-bangd, saying, make this vow to
Thee, O Sing-bongs, may grains grow in
abundancoi and f sJialJ sacrifice this (wiiitc

Magical control of Plant Life, S75

fowl) to Thee at the time of threshing”.
The white fowJ is then let ofi. A blach
fowl is now sacrificed ( by cutting it by the
neck ), in the name of all tlie ndghbouring
villages ( which are named ), so that tiie
evil eye of any resident of those villages
may not fall on the crops, A few drops
of blood of the sacrificed fowl is sprinkled
on the seed grains, the the

and tlic basket. The seed-grains arc then
taken to tlie field and sown. The fish
Is now taken back to the river, stream
or pool from which it ii'as brought It is
believed that as the fish will grow so
will the paddy-plants or other cereals
on his field.

When pumkin gourds begin to rot on
their stems, the owner of the plant plucks
one of the rotting pump-
Eievfatiaff kins on a Sunday morning,
cuts it into a few large
slices, daubs the slices
with ashes, and lays out at the junction
of two pathways cacli of these slices
on a leaf taken from the plant on which

Tii& Birkors,

the pumpkins This is called the

Ztoud'jrand ceremony of pumpkins. It is
believed Uiat after thiSi the pumpkins
unll not' rot for fear of being hacked into
pieces and treated like tliat other pumpkin^

V. Taboos of Women,

1. A BvrMf wman, like a SSntal
woman, must abstain from eating such
fruits of tlic tOrdp (Bttchania iatifolta) or
the terd (iHo^j^ox tomentmaj tree as
may grow together in one accrescent calyx.
If she infringes this taboo she will give
birth to twins.

2. A woman must not comb her hair

at sunset, Should she do so her hair will
fall on Singbongd’s rice as that is the time
wJien (identified wito Uie Sun)

retires to eat.

3. A woman must never sit on a yoke.
Should she do so, the oxen or buffaloes
will Im’e swellings on their necks,

4. A pregnant Birhor woman must not
cat the fiead of tiia cUorS fish. If sjje

Taboos IVoitten, 3T7

does so, her nose will bleed as also her
private parts.

5. A pregnant ivoman must not cat
tiH lad I i. e., bread which is made of rice*
dour enclosed within two leaves and boiled
ia water in an earthen vessel). Should
she cat it, her child's ears will get wrinkled.

6. A pregnant woman must not step ovek
a 9agar gt block-wheel cart. Should she
do so, her child's throat will emit a creak¬
ing sound like that of a sagaf.

7. A pregnant woman must not step
over a dog. Should she do so, her child's
belly will make a rumbling noise like
tliat of a dog.

8. Neither a pregnant woman nor her
Imsband must go to a pool or stream where
people are catching 6sh by poisoning the
water (wluch is done by squeezing the
juice of the Pmr&a or the Sukripufi plant
into the water). Should either of the
tW'o go there, no fish will be caught, as
their ‘shadow’ (ckhdir} is believed to be
‘heavy’. It wnll cause no liarm, bowew,
if either of them goes to a pool, tank or

37B

r/xe Bithorz.

stream where fish is being caught by Uic
processes of nettiog or trapping or by
drawing the wuter and seizing fish by the
liand.

9, A pregnant woman must not eat the
flesh of deer or liare or porcupine or other
animals with on their body nor even
look at them when brought home by a
hunting party. Should she do so, she
will gfvc birth to children with hairy
bodies.

to, A woman must not step over a hun¬
ting net or hunting slick or club. Should
she do so, there will be no luck in tlic
chase. The stick or club in such a case
1$ thrown away.

VI, Taboos op Youth and Children.

1. BirJwT youths and maidens must
not eat the flesh of the Suis bird : should
they do so, their marriage proposals will
fail.

2. Youths and maidens must abstain
from eating the brain of an animal, as that
will turn the hairs gPcy.

Taboos of Youth.

379

5. A bachelor must not plant a plantain
tree. For should such a tree fall down
with its liead to the south, die planter
will die.

4. The tuimcriC'dyed cloth of ^BirMf
bride or bridegroom, while being boiled
previous to wasliing it, should not be
allowed to stick to the pot and get burnt;
for, if that happens, the birde or bridc-
groom, as the case may be, will gel fever,

5. A Birhor youtli must not eat an
egg wliich emits a sound when shaken;
should ho do so he will get pus in his
cars,

6. A Birhaf youth or maiden must not
plaster a wattle door. Should they do so,
they will be cliiidlcss.

7. As soon as a child is bom, it is hrst
given a sip of goat's milk, if available, and
then only is mother’s milk given. But
after tliat, goat’s milk is taboo to children,
as it is believed to make children quanel-

some.

J80

TJte.

General Taboos.

1: A BirJioF must not dther sit on tlio
bearth. Should be do so, be will be
afflicted with sores.

2, A Birhof' must not>sit on a: winnowing^
fan. Should.he do so, hb maternal luides
will be afflicted with atarvabon.

3; A BirMf must not point with the
finger at the rainbow fbondo. Me): should
he do so, the offending finger will get
tnaimed or curved.

4. A Bii^r must not point with the
finger at the fruit of the kohhdd ( cucur^'^a
TnoaGhetOf Duchesne) or the hotM (cuiUta
lage^ria). varieties of the pumpkin when
it is forming. Shoiild he do so the fruit
will rot on the plant

5. If anyone looks at a BirHr with one
eye in the morning, the latter will get no
game or chop that day. To prevent this,
tlie former ts made to look at him again
witii botli eyes open.

6. A man suffering from opthalnua

MisaUantota Taboos. 381

must Tiot comb his hair* If he .does;SO,
the pain in the eyes will increase.

7* A Jughi Birher must not bathe in
tain water which Jtas just bdlen. If he
does SD| he will get optbalmia.

8. ft is considered unlucky to kill a
lizard of the species known to the

35 ChafU’h^^ (ilit, guard of the cooking->
pots }.

9. When a Birhof sells his goat, sheep
or ox, he must pull out a few hairs from
tlie waist of the animal. Sliould he omit
to do so, the luck of his family Kill depart
with the animal.

10. A B^hoi whose parents are living
must not cut off the top-knot on his head,
as that is considered equivalent to cutting
down his parents.

11. A Birhor must not look hack when
leaving home to join a hunting expedt*
tion, as that wUl bring him ill luck in the
chase.

12. A Birhdf must not sit on the thrush-
old of his hut as it will bring iUduek lo
the house. When a man sits on the door-

382

Tlte Bitlion.

way, people say, “So-and*so is sitting on
his mother's chest”,

13, On the first day that a JfljAi Birkor
begins to reap his rice-harvest, if any, he
must not ^ve away a sheaf from tlie field.
Should he do so his luck will leave him
with the sheaf.

14. A Birhof must not sit on the centra!
part of a yoke. Should he do so, tl'tc
necks of the oxen or budalocs will chafe
and swell.

15. A marriage or other auspicious
ceremony must not be celebrated on a Sun¬
day or a Tuesday or a Saturday as those
days of the week are considered unlucky
by the Birhof.

16. Although a BirhSr may give cotton¬
seed to others, yet it portends ill luck to
the giver if it is taken away in a cloth,

16, A Birhor must not give fire from
his hearth to another person when rice is
being cooked, but he may give it when
only water is being boiled but rice lias not
yet been put into it.

18. A Birhir must not micturate into lire.

ilisceilaneaus Taboos.

383

S hould he do so, he will have swelling in his
private parts.

19. A BirhoF must not throw used leaf-
plates into fire. Should he do so, Jie will
luive ill-luck.

20. A BirAop must not spit on the hearth.
Should he do so, he will suffer from sores
in the mouth.

21. A BtrJi^F who celebrates the Karatn
festival must not use the timber of the
Kctram (adina cordi/oHa) tree cither as fuel
or for building or repairing a hut

22. A .BiVAof who celebrates die Jitia
festival must similarly abstain from using
the tt'ood of theiid’d pipar (,fiou3 relliffuna)
tree. Otherwise he will liave ill luck.

23. A BirMr must not burn the leaves

or the wood of tlie soso ana*

cardinm) tree until the jom-ruiwd (or
ceremonial eating of the new crop ) has
been celebrated; Should he do so, he
wilt suffer from sores in his body.

24. A BirhoF must not bum the W'ood
of the i&ff (Ficus glmiert^) tree, Should
be do so, bugs mil infest his hut.

384

The Birftors.

25, A Birkor famOy must not leave any
metal utensils outside tlieir humhs or liut.
Should they do so, a thunderbolt will strike
the hut.

VI. Omens prom animals, reptiles
AND Insects.

1. If two hens are seen touching or
pecking each other by their beaks, two
female relatives are expected as guests;
if two cocks are seen doing so, two male
relatives are expected; if a cock and a
hen do so, a male and a female relative
are expected; and if two or more pairs
are found doing so, as many male and
female relatives are expected

2. If hens arc seen spreading out tlieir
wings in the sun, rain is expected,

3. If a jackal of the Fekor kind {which

emits a peculiarly hoarse sound ) is heard
calling near a BirfHf it is appre¬

hended that some one in the fa/ufj will
fall ill or die.

4. If a jackal is heard calling when it

Ompts. SS5

is raining, H is believed that the rain will
be followed by liot sunshine 7 and if it
is heard calling during sunshine a stomi
is apprehended.

5. The coughing of cows and oxen
portends rain.

6 . The croaking of a raven near a
Birhof^ hut is believed to indicate that
the news of the death of some near relative
is about to come ; and the direction to
which the tail of the croaking raven points
is believed to be the direction in which
the death has occurred.

7. If a vulture alights on the roof of a

hut, fever or death in the hut is
apprehended.

8 . It is considered unlucky if a goat
enters the threshing-floor of a Jsgki

To counteract the evil, one of the cars of
the goat is cut oR by the owner of the
threshing-floor and handed over to the
owner of the goat.

9. If a insect burrows into the
sole of a Bir!tor's foot, seasonable rain is
expected.

386

The Birbon.

Miscellaneous Omens.

L When a meteor or shooting star
(chdiidi) is seen, all Birhofji spit in its
direction, saying, ‘‘There goes Choijdi.
ThoQ t tlioo t tAoo r* This is believed to
^vard oft any calamity that might otherwise
follow in the wake of the meteor.

2. In a year in which the T^idu Jpil or
the Evening Star is more in evidence than
the Bhirku or the Morning Star, famine
is apprehended.

5. If before the umbilical cord of a
neiv-bom child is cut the child sneezes,
it is believed that, in later life, whenever
this child sneezes at the commence¬
ment of any undertaking or a hunting
or other expedition, the undertaking or
expedition will have Ul-luck, whether he
be a party or not to the undertaking or
expedition.

4. If the milk of a pregnant woman
escapes, it is apprehended tliat her child
will be either still-bom or die shortly
after birth, for such mUk is regarded as
the tears of the chitd in the womb.

iJf'cams.

3S7

Dreams.

1. If a Birhor dreams of a man wearing
a black coat, he will meet a bear; and if lie
dreams of a bear, he will meet a man with
a black coat on.

2 . If a Birhof dreams of honey he wUt
tread on human excrement; and if he
dreams of human excrement he will get
honey on the day follovring,

3. If a Birliof dreams of a cart, a corpse
wiU before long be carried out.

4. If a Birhar dreams of a house being

built, it portends that there will be a death
in the family or settlement [It

should be remembered that, as stated at
pp. 276-277, ante, on the occurrence of a
death the BirMr has to construct a mini¬
ature leaf-shed which is burnt down with
a view to tempt the departing shade to
return to his old home.]

S, If a BirMf dreams that anoth er person's
house is on fire, it portends tliat either his
own house wilt bum or that he or some
other member of his family will die; but

388

The Birliors,

if he dreams of liis own house being on (ire,
some other man's house will get burnt and
llie dreamer will have good luck.

6 . If a Btrhef dreams of money or
wealth, it portends tluit he will soon have
to pick up the burnt bones of some relative
(i. e., some relative wlU die ),

7. If a Birliof dreams of a snake, he
will expect a visit from some relative.

fi. If a BirJidjf dreams of a flowing river,
he expects to be treated to drink at the
house of a relative or friend.

9, If a BirJior dreams of singing, it
forebodes ill-luck and he vrill have quarrels
with his fellows or other trouble which
\rill make him weep. If, on the contrary,
he dreams of weeping, he will, before long,
ha\'e cause to rejoice.

10. To dream of a funeral or of the
death of a human being augurs the death
of some animal either Ln the chase or
othcruisc.

11 . If a man dreams that eitlier himself
or some one else is eating human fiesh or
that a Jiuman corpse is being carried, or

Drmmi,

SZ9

even if he dreams only of a corpse, he ttrill
have signal success in hunting deer or
other big game if lie goes out to liunt the
foUomng morning.

12. If a Birhif dreams of a plough, he
will catch a titrhot (a species of large
lizard) on the day foUowing. If he dreams
of pumpkins, he will catch either a tarh^t
or a toga { a species of wild cat).

13. If a man dreams of buying a goat,
he will have success in hunting if ho goes
out to hunt on the day following.

14, If a man dreams at night of hunting,
it will rmn on the day following.

15, To dream of a monkey indicates that

the spirit knowm as ( Monkey-

spirit ) is displeased and will cause failure
hi hunting unless appeased by suitable
offerings. And, similarly, to dream of a
baboon indicates that the Harmmetti’Bir
( Baboon-spirit "I is displeased [Such a
dream, it is believed, occurs to a BirMr
only in the event of a female walking across
tlie flesli of a baboon or a monkey; for,

390 The Birhors.

ordinarily the sight of a female disturbs
the spirits.’]

16. To dream of a sheep or a bearded
man indicates that tJie Dsrha spirit is
displeased and lias to be appeased vritii
proper sacrifices.

1 ^* To dream of an armed man indicates
that the LarsnkiaMiit ( vide p. 301 ante )
is displeased and will cause trouble unless

promptly propitiated witli appropriate sacri-
fices,

18. To dream of a man being beheaded
denotes that someone in the will

be sacrificing some animal or fowl,

19* If a man dreams of honey-bees or
wasps buzzing near him, he will soon have
quarrel with some person or other.

20. If a ^irAdf dreams of quarrelling
or fighting with some one, it indicates that
lus clan-spirit—or Bm-honga,—

is quarrelling uith the dan-spirit of the
other man.

21 . To dream of p^ss or sacrifices
indicates Uiat the spirits are dissatisfied
and require sacrifices and that a failure

Dreams.

to offer sacrifices will bring sickness or
death.

22. If a Birho^ dreams of breaking a
cooking-vessel, tlicre will be a new birth
in Ills family.

23. To dream of a human birth signifies
tlie birth of a child to one of the spirits
known as Sat-Bahini t vide p. 294 ante ).

24. If a man dreams of liaving sexual

intercourse with a woman {whetlicr 'it be
his own wife or not), it signifies tliat
he liad in hJs sleep sexual Intercourse
with one of the Sai-Bahini spirits. [Pol¬
lution in sleep is attributed hy the BitMi
to such intercourse. JJmdt-ero

and the whole legion of elemental nature-
spirits arc classed as ‘jSni*.S3f«'n*s, Echoes
and other weird sounds proceeding from
caves etc are attributed to these spirits.]

25. If a man dreams of a river in flood,
he will soon have plenty of liquor to drink.

26. If a man dreams of copper, he will

liave scabs on bis body,

27. If a man dreams that lie is felling
either a sal (Shitea rol^ta) or ^hisum

392

Tim BirfiQrs.

(Schiet<^em trifitga) tree, a death wiU occur
cither in his family or dan, li a man
dreams of another person doing so, a death
will occur in tlie family or dan of tliat
Other person.

28* If a man dresms thst he eating
cucumbers or figs f ^ficusj or k^otud

mdawxtflon} fruit, or the Jack
fruit (Artocarpus folia) or the ddiw fruit,

he will Jiave flesh to eat.

29, If a man dreams of bones, he will get
silver coins. And, on the other hand, if a
unui dreams of silver coins he will see die
t>one9 of some member of his clan, or, in
other words, a drath will occur in Ins chin.

30, If a man dreams of bread, he will
get a dumJmrcIthsts or the hive of a small
species of honey-bee, [The Birhor^ cat
both the honey and tJie hive.]

3t If a man dreams of oil being smeared
over his body, he will have some hnrt or
wound from which blood will come out.
And, conversely, if a man dreams of blood,
he wall liavc oil to anoint Ids body witli.

Dream.

393

32. It a nmn dfeam^ of'dance^'artd music,
he will Ixave to witness or pin in lamenta¬
tions over some deceased person.

33. If a man dreams of feasts or banquets,
he will have nothing to eat on tlie day
following.

34. If you dream of a person being
manied, it indicates tliat that person is
ill or will shortly fall ill.

35. If you dream that you are on
intimate terms witti another person, you
will soon fall out witli that person. And,
conversely, if you dream that you have
incurred the displeasure of another person,
it indicates that such persou Is highly
pleased with you.

36. Tc dream of failure in hunting augurs
a successful liunt; and to dream of a
successful hunt forbodes failure tn the
cliase.

37. To dream of joy forebodes some
impending sorrow.

38. To dream of being given what you
ask for, indicates that you W'ill not get
what you want And, conversely, to dream

394

The Birhors,

o( being refused anything you ask for,
indicates that you will get what you seek.

39. If a man dreams tliat he iis being
beaten, he will soon fall ill. If a man
dreaois he Is beating another, tliat otlier
will soon fall ill

40. If you dream of clear eyes you will
liavc sore eyes (opthalmia); and if you
dream of having sore eyes you will have
clear or sound eyes.

41. If you dream of clouds in tJie sky,
you will wake up to see a dear sky and
line morning, and, conversely, if you
dream of a dear sky, you will wake up to
sec a cloudy morning.

42 If you dream of coat, you will find
some black fruit such as black jtanvn
fEugetiin tTcttiJ/olatta^ or black berries in
the morning.

Such are some of the folk-beliefs and
folk-practices of tliis rude tribe which
civilized people label as ‘superstitions'.
Most of these beliefs and practices do

Cottclusiott,

395

indeed betray a profound ignomoce of the
processes of nature and the causes of
phenomena, and iiave their source in a
dark imagination unillumined by knowledge.
At the back of these superstitious beliefs
in omens and dreams, magic and witch’
craft, there exists, liowever, in the Birhor’^
mind a lively recognition of a powerful
spirit-world all around him and of a m]rste-
rious spiritual force or energy bcliind
various animate beings, in animate objects,
natural or artificial, and even in certain
immaterial tilings such as a spoken word,
on expressed wish, a name or a number.
This ever-present sense of the supernatural
in its two different but analogous aspects
expresses itself, as we have seen, in two
closely allied modes of beliaviour or classes
of practice which W'c term respoctrvdy-*-
Religion and Magic,

Their sense of awe or wohdering feir
of the unseen spirit-world lias led the tribe
to devise methods by which they expect
to enter into friendly relations with the
more important spiritual powers. Under

396

Tfu Bir/iors.

tlie guidance of sotne ancient or modern
‘seers’ amongst them, the have

personified these powers as or

and ifeos—-spirits and deities,^and assigned
to each of the more important ones a
symbol, a habitation and a name, and
prescribed suitable periodical sacrifices by
which to conciliate them and enter into
communion with iJiem. This attitude
towards the spirit-world and the practices
tJiat liave sprung from it constitute
Birhdr Religion and worship. Their

sense of the presence of an impersonal
spiritual force (or what the Mclanesdans
call mana) behind various inanimate objects
and animate beings and tit certain immate*
rial tilings, in particular movements of
certain living beings, particular situations
of certain material objects and particular
phases of certain natural phenomena, has
led the tribe to devise methods by which
to render this mysterious force or energy
innocuous and, if possible, propitious.
Tiicse methods constitute what wc call
Ba-^f ‘magic’.

Conclusion,

397

In cases, such as those of omens and
dreams, in which neither rrf these two
methods of dealing with the supernatural
is applicable or effective, the -Bithof seeks
to protect himself by flight or avoidance,
where possible, or else hows to the inevi¬
table as best as he can.

CHAPTER XI.

^:o:—

Folk-Tales,

In the last chapter we studied some of
the folk'beliefs and folk-practice*: current
among this people. In the present chapter
1 shall record a few folk-tales of the
the recital of which of an evening forms
one of the very few recreations in the
strenuous life of this unfortunate people,

X. The Story of Creation.

fn the beginning alt was water, A lotus
fsdlkij plant stood with its head above the
^vaters. Sinffbongd or the Supreme Spirit
was then in the nether regions fpdtii).
He came up to the surface of the waters
through the holiow of the stem of the lotus
(salti) plant. He took His scat upon the
lotus (lower. He ( then J commanded the

Creation AJylh. 399

Tortoise (Eoro) to bring up some clay.
“Go thou", said he, “and bring up some clay
from underneath the waters”. The Tor¬
toise in<juired, "Where shall 1 leave my
house {the shell or carapax ) ?" Sirigh^S
ordered, “Take your house with you".
Tlie Tortoise dived into the waters. It
took up some clay and placed it on its
back. In coming up, the clay was washed
off the shell. And thus the Tortoise failed.
Sifigh&aga now summoned the Crab
(Karkom). The Crab appeared. Sing-
bmga told it, “Go thou underneath the
waters, and bring up some clay . The
Crab dived down to the bottom of the
waters, took up some clay in its legs.
And so the crab too failed. Then Sing-
logd summoned the leech (Lendad}.
The Leech appeared, told it,

"Go thou and bring me some clay
from beneath the waters”. The Leech
dived down to the bottom of the ocean and
devoured its fill of clay. It came up
to Singhdga and vomitted out the clay from
its stomach into the hand of Singhdga.

Tkfi Birkon,

pressed this clay between bis
hands jtiat aa tn^is press rice between
their hands for purposes of prognostication.
Then Smg^haga tlirew a bit of this day in
each of the four directians of the compass,
And forthwith there arose on the surface
of the waters a four-sided land mass.
And thus was formed this Earth of ours.
The waters that receded to the four sides
of this Eaod mass became die seas (Qangas).
The earth was moist and uneven. Sin^-
6^3 began to level tlie earth with an Iron
*nflr or leveller. In the process of levetling
the surface of the land widi the mer^ eartii
came to be heaped up at placeSj and these
heaps became the litlls and mountains,
and the level lands the ralleys and. plains.
Now, Shiag-baaga had with Him all kinds of
seeds. He scattered them arround, and
trees aprung up all over the earth,

Sing-'iSngi^ then created the winged Horse
konwn as Paiikhruj, Hg neat proceeded
to create mankind. He rnadc a clay figure
of a man in the day-time and left it to dry.
But at night, the pQnhhr&j Horse came

Creatiott oj Myth,

401

and trampled it under its feet and spoilt
it The Horse did this as It vvas afraid
that if Man was created, he would subju¬
gate the horse and ride it. Next morning,
Sing-Bm^i found the’ clay figure of man
thus damaged. He then made a clay
figure of a Dog, and a fresh one of a man.
He laid thein out to dry, with their faces
turned in the direction from which the
wind was blowing. By evening, tlie clay
figure of the dog dried up and the wind
entered its nostrlis, and it became endowed
with life. But the figure of the man
was not yet dry, and so set tJie

dog to guard it. At night, the horse
sought to approach the human figure but
the dog kept barking at the horse; and
the horse could not approach tiie ima ge
and damage it. When it dried up, Siwff-
Bonga endowed it^with life. But now it
was discovered that the joints oi this First
Man were mconveniently stiff, and lie
could neither sit down nor walk properly.
Then Sini^ took back life from this

402

The Biriion.

uncouth physical frame, and re-made it
by making its joints more supple. Then
he ga\*e it life again. Such is the origin
of the present race of men.

[I. The Asuh Legend,

Men at first used to employ sticks and
stones as their tools and weapons. The
Asurs were the first to smelt iron on this
earth. The intolerable smoke that began
to issue from their furnaces disturbed Sing^
Bongs up above. Snng^BUngs sent me^en-
gcr after messenger to dissuade tiie Kafirs
from smelting iron. But the Asut'& refused
to desist from their favourite occupation)
and mutilated and drove away Sing~B^ig^i
bird-messengers. The messengers returned
to Sing-B^igs and reported hoiv they
fared at the Irnnds of the .dsSrs. So Slinp-
.Sdn^ji Himself came down to the earth
and in the shape of a boy affiicted with
sores contrived to trap the male Asters
into a furnace and bum tliem alive. And
finally Sing-Bonga hurled Ihe female Asnrs

Creation of the Bu^alo.

403

in different directionsjand their spirits
still haunt rocks and woods^ pools and
streams and springs on which they fell.
Such is the origin of some of the Elemental
spirits.

in. Creation op the Buffalo,

Sing^BmffO ( God ) after he had killed the
race of Aoura in the furnace flung the ilswr
women in different directions. One of
them who was pregnant at the time was
flung into an ihir or pool of water and was
there delivered of a buffalo-calf. A man
who was fishing in the pool, caught the
buffalo-calf with his lish-hook and took
it home; and out of that butfalO'Calf has
sprung the present race of buffaloes.

rv. The Creation of Mosquitos,
Insectsj the Tiger, the Vulture and
THE Serpent.

The god Mahideo had been out in the
jungle to cut wood suitable for making a
plough, plough-handle and plough-share
all out of the same log. At home, Pdrvaii

404

The Birftors.

(the Wife of McASdeo ) finished cooking
their meat of rice and vegetables and was
wondering at the delay of her husband in
rcltirning home. So she rubbed some
dirty excretion of! her neck and made a
swarm of mosquitos out of it and told
them, **Go and frighten Jl/aAtldeci by your
bussz so that he may hasten home". The
mosquitos went and beg^n to buzz about
the ears of Mahsdeo. But MaAsdeo took
up clippings of wood and made them
into a number of DhUts or insects that eat
up mosquitos. And forthwith the dtifiis
devoured the mosquitos. At home, Psr-
i’a«» was woodering all the more, and again
out of the dirty excretion of her skin
fashioned a tiger and sent it to frighten
Mahadeo so that he might return Iwme
at once. But when Mahsdeo saw the
tiger he seized a piece of w'ood anti
exclaimed,—"At it, Oh Chaanra Bhaonra*,
and the wood turned into a tani f a dog^like
animal which attacks tigers ) and it cimsed
the tiger and put it to flight, Pfln;ofi
became impatient and again with the dirty

CrcaSott of Scirpettts. 40S

excretion of her skin made a number of
snakes, and sent them after Methadeo to
frighten him into returning home. But as
the serpents went hissin g towards Mahsdeo,
he took up a piece of wood and made it
into a bird C ^ Icind of

Vulture ) wliich cats up snakes. And it
devoured all the snakes but one which
took shelter under tJie wooden slippers
on Mahsdeo's feet. This was a female
snake and Mahode^ took pity on it and
out of this snake sprang tlic present race
of serpents.

V. The Birhor’s Version of the
Story of Ram, Lakshman jVnd Sita,

Sing-BongQ or Bha^tcUn ( God ) created
this eartli and entrusted it to tlic keeping
of Ravan Raja. But Ravan began to kill
men for his food. Then mankind made
piteous complaints to Bhofftedn

replied, "Have patience, I shall take
birth in a human womb and tlien shall kill
Ravan Raja.

WG Tb£ Birbors.'

TJiere lived two kings named rcspec*
tively Janak Raja and Dasarath Raja.
Ncitlier of them had any issue. Raja
Dasarath who had seven wives but no
children, came across a powerful
He besought the Brahman*^ magic aid
to procure him a son.

The Brahman prescribed many penances
and ceremonies by winch to get a son.
And while departing, the Brahman secured
a promise from Dasarath that he would
hand over to him his first-born son or
sons. Before long four sons were bom to
tlie Kaja, And after a time tiie Brahman
appeared before tlie Raja and demanded
of him the fulfilment of his promise.
Raja Dasaiutli made over his two sons,
Bharat and Saturghan by name, to the
Brahman, The Brahman went away witli
them, and, on arriving at tlie junction of
two roads, asked the boys, “Here are two
roads;^ tliis one leads to a splendid
town, and that one to a jungle Infested
with tigers and bcar^ and other fearful
beasts and reptiles, Wliich way will you

Tlie Bithor*s Vcfsiott of iho Rmnayana. 407

lake ?" TJic boys wanted to take the road
to the town. This choice convinced the
Bfahmem Uiat these could not be the first¬
born sons of Dasarath; and he returned
witli the boys to the Eajat and told liimt
‘T'hese are not your first-born sons. Give
me your first-born (fit** first-fruits) ^
Then Raja Dasarath made over his sons
Ram and Liakshman to the Btshffto/n.
The Brdliman took them with him.
Arrived at the junction of two roads, he
inquired of the boys, “Which way would
you go ? Tliis one leads to a big touT),
and that other to a jungle infested vAih
wild beasts and reptiles". Tlic boys
selected the jungle roadj and this con¬
vinced the Bv^vtctn that these boys
were the firsl-bom of Raja Dasralh s
wives. The Brahitian travelled about with
them in the jungle.

In the meanwhile, in the kingdom of
the childless Raja Janak there was a
severe drought The ( council of

tribal elders) told lire that the only

way to secure rajn was for the Boji liunseU

408

The Birbors.

to drive the plough. And so the
began to drive the plough witii liis own
liands. And, in a furrow made by his
plough, there appeared a beautiful female
child. As sht was found by ploughing
she was named Slta. The Bsjs
took tile new-found baby home and brought
her up as her own child. Every mor¬
ning Raja Janak’s ivife used to smear witli
cowdung and water an open space {Snffan)
where tlie Bsjd used to offer ^crifiecs.
One morning, the Rsiii wife^ had

fever and so asked Situ to smear tlic angaii
witli coW'dnng. On the Ongati there lay
from before an enormously large and heavy
boiv which nobody could ever move.
When Sita went to cow-dung the Ihigan,
she saw tlie bow and pushed it aside as
if it was an ordinary bow of no wetgiit and
cleaned the entire Sngan witli cow-dung
and unter, and tlien put back tlie bow in its
former position. When tbe Sojs came
there for his daily p3j3, he wondered how
tlie bow could have been removed and
who could have done it. He asked the

The Birbar's Vijraan bj Uk Rsm^yaua. 409

Bsiti ( King's wife). The iZifni told him
that as she was ill she asked Sita to clean
the place, and she must have done it. And
i»ta, on being questioned, admitted she
WaH done IL And both. and fitinl
marvelled at her strength. Now the iZflja
desired to secure a suitable match for Sii&
and proclaimed all round the country tliat
he would give jSifit in marriage to the
person who would succeed in lifting the
bow. Suitors from far and near came and
tried their hand at the task but failed. At
length. Ram and Lakshman arrived there
with the Srs/iTtuin. Janak asked the
Brahman. ‘'Will these young men be able
to lift the bow ?” The Brahman said,
"Give them a trial'Ram asked Laksh-
man to try. But Lakshman protested,
saying, “No; you better try; for should
1 win her, she will be taboo to you
as your trial (younger brother's wife),
and nib not be able to look after your
comforts properly". So Ram went for^
ward and lifted the bow without any
effort as though it were a toy bow, and

The Birhors.

410

with it he shot an arrow which flew with
tlie sound of a. tliunder, so tliat even
tlic deaf heard it, the crooked became
straight, and tlie blind recovered their
sight. So Ram was married to Sita. Then
the Brsiiman went back to Raja Dasarath
witli Ram and Sita and Lakshman. The
Riija received them with open arms. And
for a year or two Ram and Sita and Laksh*
man lived happily in their own home.

But then one morning when Ram and
Lakshman returned home from a bath,
tJicy saw a writing on the lintel of the
house in the hand-writing of Dasarath that
Ram and Laksliman were to live in exile
in the jungle and Bharat and Saturglian
were to get the kingdom The sons

obeyed. Ram, Lakshman and Sita repaired
to the forest where they lived in
or small leaf-huts like the Uthlu Birliofs,
Once tliey made their Aam&ss under a large
tamarind tree (TannariTidtis indieusj which
protected their huts from
Why TamarlaA rain water, for in those
days tlie tamarind tree

iVJiy Khijur Leaviis are long & rwir^ow. 4tl

liad large leaves. But Ram told Laksh-
man, “We liave been exiled to the
forest to bear hardship and privations,
but these leaves shelter us from the
rain. Shoot at the leaves with your
bow and arrow". Lakshman obeyed
andtlic leaves of the tamarind tree were
split asunder into innumerable tiny bits
and admitted water into their
And since then the leaves of the tamarind

tree have remained so small.

Again, in their wanderings they once

encamped under a khijur (Phoenix ar/tves*

tris) tree. In those days

WiyEMjur ghijur tree too had

large and broad leaves,
ana aaitow. t

And these effeebvely pro*

tected their itwmfca from the rain, Ram

again asked Lakshman to shoot his arrow

at the leaves and Lakshman obeyed. And

the leaves were thus split into numerous

thin strips; mid ever since then the Khijir

has borne long and narrow strips of leaves.

Ram, Lakshman, and Sita continued to

lead a wandering life in the jungles like

412

The Birttors.

the UfMuSt living in temporary kiJnh^
of which one porlton used to be maHc^eci
off for Si^, and the two brothers occupied
tiie remaining portion. Kam and Lakshman
used to gather edible roots and tubers,
which Sita boiled for their meals, Siia
used to hand over his share of the boiled
tubers to Lakshman, saying, "Take, BShti,
here is your sliare". Lakshman used to
take them and stow them away but did
not eat them on ttie ground iliat Sita
merely asked him to 'take' the food but
did not expressly ask J^im to ‘cal' it.
Lakshman used to appease iiis hunger by
eating earth.

Now it so liappened that for a few
days Sita. noticed a beautiful dwarhsh
deer moving about near tlieir hojtbd.
So one day she told Ram, "Why do
you go far in search of food ? For the
last few days, I have noticed a Bnc
small deer moving about near our kitmiiS,
Do not leave the kurnbn to-day; and when
the deer comes, kill it". So they reniaincd
in the kunubit, and when the deer came by>

Ttt£ Charmed Musiard-Sudi. 413

gave it cliase and in the eager pursait was
drawn far away from the JciiTPitH but could
neither catch nor hit it. In the meanwhile,
Lakshman seeing that the deer was drawing
them further and further away from the
hastened back to the gave Situ

a handful of muslard-seeds which he had
charmed with some magic spefls and told
lier, “Keep these, and throw them at any
outsider approaching the temifl. If you
cast one of these seeds at any person, he will
lie dowTi as dead for an hour and then
revive, if you cast two seeds at him he
will lie down as dead for two lionre, and
so on". Then Lakshman went back to
join Ram.

After Lakshman had ^nc out of sight,
Ravan Raja arrived at the on a

clmiot (redh} from above, Sita cast one
of the charmed mustard seeds at him, and
he lay as dead for an hour; then he cast
a second mustard seed and Ravan lay
as dead for another hour, and so on tiU
at length Ravan Raja told her, '‘Why take
all this trouble ? Why not cast alt tlm

414

The Birliots.

scccis once a.t me so tliat I rnny die
altogether Sita took Iiim at liis word
and cast all the seeds at him and he died,
and flames issued out of them and burnt
Ravan to ashes. But, to and behold ! out
of tlie ashes Ravan Raja sprang into Jite
again. Then he seized Sita by the hair,
and carried her off in his chariot. In the
evening, when Ram and Lakshman returned
unsuccessful from the pursuit of the deer,
they were surprised to see no light in the
jtuTnfKt. So Ram asked Lakshman to go
inside the to see what Sita ivas doing.

Lakshman was nonplused to find the
kittnbu empty and stood there motionless.
Impatient at Lakshman*s delay, Ram took
up his bow and arrow to shoot at Lakshman,
when suddenly light appeared in the
Then Ram went In, and both the
brotliers be^n to weep at tire disap¬
pearance of Sita.

Then they summoned a bear to divine
the secret of Sita‘s disappearance, for bears
and monkeys were the only companions
they had in their jungle home. Ram placed

B(m tilt Plum tret catiie fo be hardy, 41S

some rice fchotd manjij in the paws ot
tlie bear for the purpose. The hear began
to swing its head backwards and forwards
in the manner of a human nuri, looked at
the rice, and through divine afflatus saw
what happened^ and exclaimed, — *Ko,

I matemal uncle ) t she is nowhere near.
Ravan Raja has taken her far away”. On
hearing lliis, Ram and Lakshman started in
search of Sita, Haniiman was then in
the womb of his mother, and cried out
from within his mother's womb. “Wait,
Ma ( Elder brother), I shall also accom¬
pany you”. Hanuman forthwith look birth
and accompanied Ram and Lakshman. *
Hanuman, Ram and Lakshman went on
till they came to a plum (Zizyphusjujuba)
tree. They asked the tree, "Well, friend,
did you see Sita being

HewthsJajnke carried oft by Ravan

QUIld to 1)0 W .

^rfy- Raja ?" The tree an-

swererd, "Yes, 1 caught

hold of her cloth, and here is a bit of the

cloth”; and the tree pointed to a rag

entangled in its thorns. At this Ram

The Birhors.

blessed the tree, saying^—done,
friend, henceforth you will not die,
however oiiich you may be hacked at
and mangled. Even if a single root is
left, you will spring up afresh from that
root^’^ And since then the ptuni tree
has become one of the hardiest of plants.
Advancing forthcr^ they met a stork and
in^iiiTcd, **Did you see Sita being carried
ofi ?” said the stork,

Oriffin of tlw ^'What do I care for your

Stak'stoEixak. ^

grossed with the thought of my own bcily
(i. e,, quest for food)"» Annoyed at
such a rude reply, Ram told Laksliman;,
“Seize hold of* the bird”. Lakshman
caught tlie stork aod pulled It by the
oeck, and since tlien the stork lias a lopg
neck.

Advancing still further they came across a
C/uryii or squirrel. They asked tlic squirrel,
“Did you see Sita being
Origiii of carried off ?” “Yes”, ans-
Sqtuuntil’a wered the squirrel, “1 saw

her being taken along this

Origin of the Marks an the Squirrel's Back. 417

way". Ram blessed the squirrel by drawing
three lines with his fingers upon the back
of the squirrel and said, “From now you
will not be hurt even if you fall down
from the heavens" (i, e., from whatever
height you fall Ever since then the
squirrel has three lines stamped on its
back, and can take tlie longest leaps down
the highest trees.

At length Ram, Laksliman and Hanuman
reached the sea-shore and saw a wide
impassable expanse of water before them.
Hanuman told Ram,—‘Shoot your arrow.
Dado, and you will see how I cross the
sea". Ram shot his arrow which stiick
in the middle of the sea, and only the point
of the arrow remained above water. R^
handed over to Hanuman a ring which
he was to carry to Sita as a token. At one
Ipap Hanuraan alighted on the point of the
arrow sticking out from the middle of the
sea} and another leap took him safe across
the sea to the opposite shore. There he
met witlr a number of women carrying water
27

418

The Birhors.

from a spring (4^^) to bathe Sita, who
had, by magic spell, raised up repulsive
sores all over her body so tJiat Kavan
might not seek to violate her.

Under orders of Ravao Raja, u-ater from
scores of pitchers used to be carried by the
women every day and poured on Sita
morning and evening to cure her of her
sores, but to no effect. One of the
women whom Hanuman saw carrying
water for Sita was an old woman who lagged
iTclilnd her companions, Hanuman appro¬
ached her in the shape of a bird

and dropped the ring into her pitcher
of \TOter, and told her, “Tell your new
queen to spread out her cloth, and pour
the water of the pitcher on it". The old
woman marv'ellcd at tins and acted as
directed. As she \ras pouring the water
on Sita's doth the ring dropped on it and
\ Sita recognised it as Ram's. And she cx-
clmmed, "Ah t now my husband is arrived.
,Where did you get this ring V’ The
woman replied, "A sUgii dropped in into
the pitcher",

Otigtt oflhe Marks on the Squirrel's Back. 419

Before longj Hanuman in the shape of a
siigit appeared before Sita. Kavati s people
liad given Sita five mangoes to eat, Sita
had eaten two, and the remaining five she
now gave to Hanuman saying, ‘‘Help your¬
self with one, and take the other two for
your brothers CDadOs, meaning, Ram and
Lakshman). The fruit tasted exquisitely
sweet and Hanuman ate up all the three.
Then he went back to Sita and told her,
"The fruit tasted very sweet and so I have
eaten up all of tlicm. Do please, tell me
where the trees grow". Sita said, The
trees are guarded day and night by fierce
^vatchmen who will kill you if you enter llic
garden". Hanuman insisted, "Do tell me,
and I shall anyhow manage to get some
mangoes". So Sita pointed the \^y sad
Hanuniiin went to the garden. ^ ere c
begged of the gaurds to give hun four
or five mangoes. Ho ate them and they
tasted so sweet tliat he leaped about all
over the garden, plucked any number o
mangoes, ate some and threw a number
of others across the sea to where Ram

410

The Birhurs.

and Lakshman were, and heaped up otliers
under Uic trees. For fifteen days Ilanu*
man in the disguise of a suga thus despoiled
the garden and feasted himself full on
mangoes. The guards exerted tlrcir utmost
efforts to prevent the bird from di spoiling
the garden but in vain. If they set traps
to catch it, it swelled its limbs to such
large dinicnsions as to burst the traps open,
and if they shot their arrows at it, it shrunk
its body to such minute proportions that
it could liardly be seen and precisely
aimed at, and all their arrows missed tircir
mark. Then the migd laughed at them and
told them, “Tliat is not the way to kill
me. I sliall now tell you how you can
do that. Bring all the oil you can find
in your towm, and all the cloths except
tlie new queen's ( Sita’s). Wind up the
cloths in the shape of a huge rope and
make me wear it as a tail; sc^ it profusely
in oil, and set fire to it; and thus you
will burn me to death". The poor guards,
not knowing what else to do, followed
Ilanuman's instructions. When the tail

the Bahooti's Face and Bands 421
become Black,

was ablaze, Hanuman in his proper sliape
leaped about from roof to roof and burnt
down to ashes all the houses in £onia.

Then Hanuman’went to Sita and asked
her how the fire on hisjtail might be put out.

Sita told him, "Quench the fire as best
you may". Hanuman thereupon jumped
into the sea and his huge form extended
from one shore of the sea to the other.
Hanuman caught hold of his tail wlh the
bands and examined it| and then lodktd
at his liands and found they l^d turned
black. He Uien wiped his liands on his
lace and the face too became bhick
Then he caught hold of au ebony or Keimd
(Dios^yyros mdcmoxt/ion) tree, and it too
assumed 3 black colour. Hanunian's huge
body and tail served as a bndge over
which iiam and Lakshman easily crossc
the sea to Lanka.*" Then issued a fierce
struggle between Lakshman and Hanuman

90 For ft wiftnt of tyi portion erf Llio itorj, wc Folk-
Ulo Na VI,

422

Thm Birbors.

on one side and the people of Lanka
on the other, in which a!l the people of
Lanka except Ravan and an old woman
got killed. As for Rivan, when his head
cut off, twelve other heads sprang
in its place, and again as one of these
was cut off, another would spring up
by its side, and so on. Lakshman and
Hanuman rested for a day after their
strenuous labours, and then reported to
Ram the condition of affairs. Ram told
them, ‘‘Leave the old woman for the
present, and concentrate your efforts
against Ravan”,

So they again proceeded to fight Ravan.
Ravan told them, “You seek in vain to
kill me. None but a person who tias fasted
for twelve years will succeed in killing
me." Hanuman again assumed tlie shape
of a S^a bird and wheedled Ravan into
divul^ng the secret as to w'herc his
life was secreted. Raran told him that
his life was deposited in a small closet witli
golden walls inside the inner apartments
of his brick-built palace. Hanuman and

Where Ravan*s Lt/e was Secreted, 423

Lakshman entered the palace and broke
open the closet and freed Ravan’s life
from confinement. Then Lakshman and
Hanuman went to fight Ravan and as
Lakshman liad actually taken no food
(except carUi) for the last twelve years,
he at length succeeded in killmg Ravaii,

Then Ram and Lakshman went to tlie
old woman who appeared to be the only
survivor in Lanka, and told her, ‘We
have killed Ra\^n Raja, and now we make
over this kingdom to you. You will be

^ here.” But now

there suddenly appeared before tliem the
muantic figure of KumbhaUma, a brother
of Rav’an who had been in bed all these
years— for Kumbltakama had Uie extra¬
ordinary gift of sleeping soundly for twelve
long years at a stretch. And Kumbhakaroa

.Slri»».i K.n.p«.r i. . onw™ “

tta “ir”"

nmiuhamvi) ot iW Lwt Iad»J^P“J
‘Malwntni- m a reniinliMJrtiw of O''**™
ittnudn Iqr tLo luroal powurful wAonagnty.

-/s-# The Birhors,

caught up the two brothers Ram and Laksh-
man in tiis armst and took them for sacrifice
before a pit within which dwelt the goddess
JiTafttn si i n those days, Kumbhakama placed
some drufl rice on the ground at the
month of the pit and asked Ram and
Lakshmati to eat the rice from the
ground ( Iit,f graze on the rice) in the
manner of fowls and animals about to be
sacrificed. The brotliers said, ‘'We have
never done this. So, please, show us how
to do it,” At this Kumbhakarna stooped
down to show them howto ‘graze’ (dting)
on the rice, and just as he stooped
sufBciuntly low, Lakshman forthwith cut
oflf his head. Then Rslimsi came out
of the pit and thus addressed the brothers,
So long Ra’i'an used to offer me sacrifices.
Now you have killed him. Who will
hencefortli give me food oScrings (bhdg) f'
Ram told her, “Go thou to all parts of
tile earth. Men all over the earth v^ill
henceforth offer thee sacrifices." And so
she did; and since then the cult of Kdimat
(motlier Kali) has spread over the earth.

Origin of the Mouk^'s Tail, 42,

vr. Haw the Monkey came to have a
tail and how the Birhohs came to
CATCH AND EaT MdNKEYS.

[The following is a‘variant of the latter
part of the above story of LaJeshman

and Suq :—}

Ra^'an Raja abducted Sita to his kingdom
in Lanka C Ceylon I). Ram, Lakshman and
Hanuman went there to rescue her. The
Birbors were tl^en living in those parts.
When Hanuman first appeared within the
ffarh of Ra\*an, his men sought to catch
Hanman but failed. At length Ravan
ordered tliem to call some Birhors as they
lived in the jangles and might be more
skilful in catching the Hanuman. An old
Birhor conplc were brought- But all tlieir
efforts were unsuccessful. Then Hanuman
took pity on them and taught the old man
how to make suitable nets, ‘'Make your
nets”, said he, "with interstices thrice the
breadth of a hunmn finger. And then you
will be able to catch me". And so tliey
did; and Hanuman was caught in the net,

426

Tiic Birbors,

But then Hanuraan told the Birhor, "Why
should you kill me ? I shall hill myself.
Just do wliat [ tell you. Wind up at!
available clotlis in the shape of a tail and
attach it as a terminal appendage here
{ pointing to tire extremity of the vertebral
column); smear the ‘fail' profusely wth
oil and ffitee and set fire to it". And the
Birhors did as they were mstmeted. And
Hanuman uith his tail aU aflame leaped
from Jiouse to house all over the tovi,Ti of
and thus all the houses in the tomi
were burnt down. Then Hanuman caught
hold of his own 'fail' with his hands, and thus
the palms of his liands turned black. And
then he caught hold of a Eeond tree Mth his
hands and it too became black; and then
he sought to clean his hands by rubbing
tficm against his own face and his face too
turned Wack. Ever since tlicn the colour
of the ICeond tree and of the face and tlie
inner part of the hands of the race of
Hanumans ( baboons } have remained black,
Finally, Hanuman plunged into the sea
to wash himself clean. Then lie asked

How the Birhor^ /oot to mting Monkeys. 42?

Kam who was his maternal tincle (mama),
*‘Wlio will dispose of my body when I
am dead ?" Ram replied,"'Those who
entrapped you—thc Birhors—and their prO’
geny will eat you and your race". And
since then the Birhors have taken to eating
the flesh of different sorts of monkeys and
baboons.

vii. The Stoiiy of the Origin of the

Sabae grass (Icluuinium angitstifoUatn ).

In a certain place, tlierc lived together
seven brothers and one sister. Every day
the seven brothers would go out to hunt,
leaving their sister to gather edible leaves
and tubers and prepare their meals.

One day while the brothers were out
hunting, tlieir sister jipthered some edible
herbs and wMc about to boil them for food,
accidently iiurt her finger from which blood
came out. To avoid staining the wall witli
the blood from tlie cut in her finger she
wiped her bleeding linger with tlie
leaves and tlicn boiled the leaves for their

428

The Btrhors.

evening meal. When the brothers return¬
ed Iiome in the evening after an un¬
successful hunt they sat down to dinner,
and found that the sag tasted uncommonly
sweet. They wondered at this and asked
their sister what she had mixed with
the AOg, Slie at first said that it was
only common Jiflj and noUiing else. But
when the brothers said, "Mere sOg
never tasted so sweet before", and insisted
on her speaking the trutli, she told
them how she wiped her bleeding finger
with the 9^ leaves. "AJxl that is the
secret of the exquisite sweetness of this
t they said.

On a subsequent day, on tJicir way
back from the jungle, the brothers thus
talked amongst themselves. One said,
"Her blood lasted so sweet: how much
sweeter must lier flesh taste I" Ano¬
ther proposed, "Let us slay Jier and
cat her then." And so they agreed,—all
except the youngest brother who nras
particularly attached to his sister. His
heart began to bleed at ilic tliongbt,

Origin of tlie SdbM Grass, ^29

though for Jear of his elder brothers he
could utter not a word of protest
Soon afterwards they took their sister
to a jara or cleared space in tlie jungle,
put up a wooden scaftold '/mucAatiJ and
told her, “Sister, sleep here this day"; and
so she did. When the other brothers
were about to shoot at tJieir sister, the youn¬
gest brother wept w’itbin him self and stood
aside, sullen and sulky. His six brothers,
one after another, shot their arrows at tlicir
sister but all missed their ainL So they
called up tlreir youngest brother and bade
him shoot at her* “Aim all right", said
they, “and kill her, else we shall kill you
and cat your flesh*'. He said within him¬
self, “Whether you spare me or kill roe,
I cannot shoot her’*. And so he aimed
his arrow in a wrong direction. But it so
happened tliat the arrow hit all right, and
stuck into his sister's chest, and she dropped
down the scafiold and died.

Then the elder brothers ordered the
youngest, “Go, bring fuel wood in your
hands widiout using any string or rope

The Birhars.

to make them into bundles". And so
he had to go and gatlier fuel. And as he
was puzzled how to eany so much wood
wLtJiout tying them up with a string, he
w’ept bitterly, A Dh&mna snake saw him
weeping and asked him what distressed
him. He related what troubled him. And
the snake said, "Don't worry", and coiled
itseif around the bundle of fu eh wood. He
carried the wood to his brothers and the
snake slipped away.

His brothers next ordered him to fetch
water, and gave him for the purpose an
earthen pitcher with a hole at its bottom.
To prevent water from escaping out of tlie
hole, he caught some fish and crabs and
put them into the pitcher, but still the
w-ater leaked out. He went dowTi into the
stream and wept aloud. A frog hc^rd hint
weep and asked him what was his trouble.
He narrated his story and the frog took
pity on Iiim and entered the pitcher and
closed up the bole by sitting tight on it.
and the young man carried the pitcher of
water with the frog and fish and crabs in
it to his brothers.

431

Origin of Oil Sabai Grttss.

His brotJiers next ordered him to bring
some fire. He asked, “How shall I bring
it ?■' They said, “Bring it on the palm of
your hand". He went to the village and
secured fire. But in carrying it on Ills
hand, he felt lus hand burning, and lie
wept. Singbonga ( God ) took pity on him
and appeared before him and gave him
one of Hia own hands, saying, “Carry the
fire on this hand and return the Jiand to
me when you have done with it". And so
he safely carried the fire to his brothers,
who roasted the meat of choice parts of
the body of tlicir sister. They ga^-e their
youngest brother the entrails and legs of
their sister to roast for himself and cat.
He took them to some distance, lighted
a fire, and roasted fish and crabs for himself.
He ate the fish while his brothers were
eating the meat of their sister and he
munched the roasted crabs while his
brothers were chewing the bones of their
sister. Finally he buried unobserved
the entrails and legs of his sister in a
liole which lie dug into tlie ground.

432

The Birhors.

Then all the brothers returned to their hut
Before long, there shot up a fine bamboo
stalk from tliis hole. In fact, it was the
entrails and legs of Ins poor sister which
thus turned into bamboo. An old couple,
who earned their livelihood by begging
from door to door, playing on a guitar
and singing, wanted to cut the bamboo
for making a guitar (kendra) with. As the
old tnan began to strike his axe against the
bamboo, the bamboo sang in a piping
voice,—

"r>o not, do not, cut me dowm, old man 1
This bamboo by my brother planted". ^ =
The old man hesitated but his wife
urged him oni and he cut down the bamboo
and brouglit it home and made a ketidrs out
of it.

In the meanwhile, the six brothers had
married and reared up families of their own.
But the youngest brother remaind unmar-

Thu originA] is in ChoUi-KflOTiiri Hindi, nnd
mna m rsUotFa;

nA inf, Hitrka,

Kh fiS, tJtautkl n^l lAjuT

Oright of the Sabni Grass. 4^3

ricd and lived by himsetf in a hnt of his
own, not far from that of the other broth era.
He had a guitar of his own willi

which he used to beguile his weary hours
when not otherwise engaged.

One day the old couple who liad cut down
the mysterious bamboo and made a guitar
(kendTa) of it, went with their (lendrs) to
the house of the sis brothers to sing and
beg alms, but the iendra struck up,—
‘‘Sound not, sound not, O Kendra^

This be thy enemy's house, O JiTentirff’,®*
At this, the old couple marvelled and
left the house in haste and stopped at the
hut of their youngest brother. And now
the A'cruirfl struck up a different music,—
“Sound, sound, Oh, Kendra,

This be my brother’s house.

Oh, KendraV^*

*** TUo orlgiiml rum UlUi l

*'Ifa 6^1% sw /

434

The Birhors,

When the young man heard Ihiss he
eagerly invited the old couple into his hut,
plied them with drink and managed to ex¬
change his own guitar witJi theirs. And
he treasured up tliis mysterious guitar as
his most cherished possession.

Thereafter, every day when the young
man went out in quest of food, Iiis sister
would come out of tlie hendfH and prepare
nice dishes for him and re-enter the keiidTa
before her brother returned home. And
his brother would eat with unwonted
relish the fciod tJms prepared, and great
would be his wonder and delight.

Vt hen this went on happening day after
day, the young man decided to solve tlie
my.stcr>' at all hazards. So, one day, be
concealed himself near the hut and lay in
wait to surprise tlie secret visilant And as
soon as his sister issued out the guitar, he
entered the but and seized her by the

Tlw original nitw bH foUa^.^

Alt; Tf, ^etuha !

Sh ta f/har, r? AWm" /

435

Origin oj ths Sabai Gr<i£S.

hand. He at once recognized her and
related to lier all tliat had happened and
declared, "I did not cat a single morsel
of your flesh”. And both rejoiced at the
meeting.

Then one day lie invited his other
brothers to a feast at his hut, saying, “1 am
going to give a funeral feast in memory of
my poor dear sister ’. And the six brothers
came and had a hearty dinner which was
prepared by their sister. As soon as they
finished eating, their sister appeared before
them and said,—

"So then, my brotliers,niy blood tasted sweet,
And for that on my flesh you feasted !
Wliose hands prepared this feast to-day ?"

At tliis the six brothers were smitten u-ith
intense compunction and exclaimed, Shame,
shame on us • Let tfic Earth cleave in
twain, and we shall hide ourselves under
the earth for very shame”. And forthwith
a wide cleft appeared on tlic earth at their
feet and engulfed the six brothers. As the
brothers were being thus enguUod, their
sister caught hold of them by the tufts o/

436

The Birhan.

their hair, but In vain. The yawning chasm
in tJie earth closed up again, engulfing the
six men, but leaving the tufts of their hair
in the hands of their sister. These tufts of
hair turned into what thenceforth came to
be known as Stlbni grass (Iscfiaemum
angnsUfothwt).

vni. The Sky Myth,

In ancient times, the sky / ritnil) was bo
very low as almost to touch men's head.
Once while an old BirhOf woman was hus¬
king rice with a pestle and mortar, her
pestle (tAkti) liappcncd to strike against the
sky with great force. And, as a result, the
sky receded upwards, and it has since then
remained suspended high up in tlifO air.

IX. How A Prince and a Princess

CARRIED AWAY THE ^LUCK' OF THEIR

respective parents.

There once lived a Rajil who had seven
sons. One of the sons always neglected his
lessons. So tlic RajS. gave him a pony and

Children taking mvay their Parents' Luck. 417

told him, “As you are a good-for-nothing
feilow, you have no bireiness here. Take
tJiis pony; leave my place and shift for
yooraclf". The young prince rode the horse
and went away*

After he had ridden a long—long—dis¬
tance, he felt very hungry. As he had no
money to buy food with, he entered a village
and offered to pawn his horse for a leaf-
cup of boiled rice. He went about

crying.—"Who will take this horse for a
ddnil of rice One of the villagers gave
him rice to eat in exchange for his horse.
Tlie prince, however, bargained with him that
he would be ]^vcn back the horse whenever
he rchimed a leaf-cup of rice. Again, after
he had ridden half a day and felt hungi^,
he entered a village and went about enquir¬
ing, “Who will give me a ddna of rice In
exchange for my shoes ?' One of the
villagers agreed to the exchange, and gave
him a dtiml of rice; and the prince extracted
a promise from him to hold tlic shoes only
as a pawn and return them when he brought
back to him a dfind of rice. Then on

438

The Birhofs.

and on he went till he felt hungry again,
and entered a village and went about
enquiring, ‘'Will any one give me a dOna,
of rice in exchange for my waist cloth ?"
Some one ofiered a (/tJinU of rice and he
handed over to him his waist cloth, and
extracted a promise from him to return
the cloth when he brought back a dd»h
of rice to redeem it.

Again, after another half a day's journey,
lie felt hungry and on entering a village,
went about enquiring, “Who will take one
of my legs in pawn for a dond of rice ?"
One of liie villagers accepted tlie proposal,
cut off one of his legs and gave him a dSntl of
rice. “Take care of the leg", said tlie prince,
“and when I bring back to you a dSnd of
rice, return my leg to me”. The man
agreed to tliis. Similarly, the prince paw¬
ned first his other leg, then his two arms
one after another, and lastly his trunk
without the liead, for a ddnil of rice each,
and extracted promises to restore the leg
and arms and trunk to Iiini when he retur¬
ned a doitil of rice for each.

Children Taking auiay iheir Paratti’ Luck. 439

Now the head only was all that was left
of the prince. And then the prince or
rather the head continued its journey tilt at
length it readied tlic bank of a small stream
where seven young princesses were bathing,
Seeing tlienii tJie head concealed itself bc-
liind a bush and began to cry piteously:
‘‘Give me a little water to dunk ! A little
water to drink !’* The princesses heard
liiis piteous appeal and the elder sisters
told their youngest sister, “Do thou go,
and give some water to tlic thirsty one,
whoever he may be"- So tlic youngest
princess went behind the hush and gave
some WTiter to tlic mysterious head. And
on lier return told her sisters urlial she saiv.
On tlicir return home, the elder princesses
told their fatlicr, “Father, Babi {meaning,
her youngest sister) gave water to tlie
head of some person of unknown origin.
Pray, don't admit her into tlie house". At
this, her fatlicr expelled his youngest daughter

from the house. Not knowing what to do

the princess thought within herself, Now
liave no one to go to* So I shall go to this

Titt Biulmn.

mysterious head; and i£ it agrees to have
me, I sJiall follow it”. And so she went
to the head and the head was happy to have
the pM'ineess for its mate. They both went
fo the house of the village (hcadmati)

in a neighbouring village. Out of respect
for the king’s daughter, the Midiia wel¬
comed them to liis house as honoured
guests.

The liead ashed tlie princess to borrow
an a.\e from the MahtO, and so she did.
Then, at tJic request of the licad, tJie prin¬
cess took up tire axe and followed the head to
a neighbouring jungle. There the head asked
her, ‘*Cut a di5p creeper tvith your axe, and
lie up tlie axe with the chop here on luy head".
And she did as bidden. TJien the bead
moved about in the forest witli tJic axe tied
on to it, and as it moved, tlie axe went on
cutting down all the trees tliat it came
across. And in tliis way the forest was
cleared of its trees for an area of over 34
miles (12 gautlis or tosrs) in length by tlie
same breadtti. Then they returned Jiomc to
Uie MillitO’s house.

Children Takitigaw(^ their Parents' Ltiek. 441

In a monUi's time tiie trees thm felled
dried up. Then the princess at tlic bidding
of the head set fire to these trees. The
ariics, thus produced, served as manure for
the land cleared by the head. The head
then told the princess, “Go, bring rice-
husks from Boinebody's threshing-floor".
And she accordingly brought a basketful
of husks. The head requested the Mahto to
help them to plough and sow the land.
The MalitG ploughed up for Urem tlie whole
area of 12 kases square in one day and sowed
it witli the husks brought hy Uic princess.
Although there was no more than one
basket of mere husks, this miraculoi^y
sutficed for sowing the whole field witiu
^Vnd the field yielded a bumper crop of
riesL Again, at Uicir request, the Maht6
helped tlicm in reaping the crap. As soon
as a few sheaves of rice were reaped, the
rice on the rest of the area of 12 hoses
square came to be reaped within a short
time as if by magic. Then the head sought
Uic MShtft's assistance in carrying the
rice to the threshing-floor. iVs soon as a

442

T}t4 Blfhors*

few bundles of rice-stalks were carried
there, lo and behold f—^thc threshing-floor
became filled with all the rice from the
field. Then the head requested the MlhtO
to lend a hand in threshing the rice.
Before the M^hl6'$ buUocks made one or
two rounds over the rice-stalks spread out
on the threshing-floor, all the rice got
tlircshed. Then as the began to lift

the straw with a pitchfork, all the straw got
sifted of themselves. Again, as soon as rice-
grains were once taken up in a winnowing
fan and shaken backwards and forwards
in order to blow away tlic chaff, the whole
heap of ricc-grains on the threshing-floor
got cleaned of their chaff. Then as sooil
as tlie M^htd began to tic np the ricc-grains
in one or t\^^ mtlrds or receptacles made of
straw-ropes, scores of such utQfas were
made, of themselves, and got fiiled witli
rice.

The princess then husked some rice and
boiled it. Then, at the bidding of the head,
she kept apart two dim As of boiled rice for
redeeming tlic two arras of her husband.

Chfldrm Takingaiuay Uidr Paretils' Lttck.443

two dOnSs for redeeming the two leg^,
one dotia for the trunk, one ddtitl for the
shoes, one for the turban and one for the
pony. Then the princess arranged Uic
<#3/u1s of rice in a basket urhich she took up
on her liead, and with it followed her
husband.

They first went to the viUagc where the
Prince's trunk fiad been pawned. The
head told tlie man who held tlic trunk in
pawn, ^’Hcrc is your (fend of rice. Please^
return the trunk”. The man readily rei¬
ned it on getting back his ddnd of rice.
And the trunk got stuck to the head all
right. Similarly, the legs and the arms,
^vere redeemed, and tliey got stock to the
trunk all right. Then the shoes, the waist-
cloth and the lurban were similarly redeem¬
ed and fitted into their respective places;
and the head looked again the Prince that
it ooce w-as. Finally, the pony was sinu-
tally redeeni^cL

Now, the Ihince and his u^c took up
their quarters (d^ra) in a place not far from
tliat of toe Prince's fatlrer. In tiic mean-

444

Thi Birhars,

while, the father of our Fiince and tljc
father of our Princess had both lost all
their possessions and were reduced to
extreme poverty. This was due to their
having driven out these two From tlicir
re^cclive houses. One day the rnother of
the prince arrived at the latter's place and
begged for alms. She did not recognise
her son. But tJie prince recognised her
and asked lier, “Who are you ? How many
sons have you got ? And where are tliey ?"
She replied, "I had seven sons. We drove
away the youngest And now we have losl
all our wealth and property, and live by
bc^ng^'. The Prince gave lier rice and
cloth and asked her to bring her remaining
sons mth her as soon as convenient so that
if they were found suitable he might em¬
ploy them as labourers, "Bring also the
old mao", he added.

The old woman went back in |oy to her
husband and sons and asked them to come
with her, “Wlierc \vill you take us ?" they
asked. She said, “.A. generous Prince lias
taken up Jiis quarters not far from this

Cbildreit Takingaivay iheirParmb' Luck. 4^5 1

village. He gave me this cloth and lice,
and he may give yoti work”. Tlicy
Followed her with alacrity.

When they appeared before the Prince,
be asked the old man, **Why did you drive
away one of yonr sons ?" The old man
replied, “He did not mind his lessons, and
so 1 sent him away". The Princess ©ivc
them a hearty meal. And the Prince told
his father,—“I am the expeUed son. How
do you relish the dishes The father

embraced him with tears str^ming down

his eyes and took him up in his arms.

have found my long-lost son at last I

He had taken away witli him all my hUr^-
chauli { Ut., paddy-rice, meamng prosperity,

luck)". . ,

Now, the Prince and his wife took the

old man and the old woman with their otiier
sons to the Maht6"s village, where tlw prince
was now as good as a Raja. And tlierc
they all lived happily together.

Not long afterwards, tlic sisters of toe
princess who liad great difficulty in maim
taiiiing themselves, turned up one day and

446

The BifkoTs*

begged of the princess the loan of a paitil
(about 2 lbs,) of rice. The princess
recognised them and said, ^^Theii yon said
that 'Babi* had given some one of an
unknown caste water to drink and should
be outcasted and driven away. And r;icntr
how is it that you come to beg of her for
a loan of rice ?" At this tlie sisters went
away. The Prince and Princess lived long
as king and queen of tliose parts,

X. How THE Dead Phiuce and His
Bride Hose rrom their Graves.

A Raja had two sons and a daughter.
The elder son, on being married, went to
trade in a distant country WTth pack-bullocks
laden with merchandise. He left his wife
alone in his own separate house. The young
wife waited long for her husband’s retnrn,
and then thought of taking some other mate.
So in the guise of a Iiawker of curds she went
iiicogmio to her husband’s parents’ house
canying some cin-ds (duhi) in an eartheii-
H'arc pot. There she found lier irifit

The Dead ri^ng from ihdr Graves. 447

(husband's younger brother) playing on a
guitar (kendra). She asked liim, "Will
you buy dahir He said, “Wail, I am
going to call my mother”. When her
iriiil went to call his mother, the disguised
curds-seller made away witli her broliicr-
in-law's guitar.

W'lieo he came back and found hi&
guitar missing, Uie prince went out in
search of it, and came to know that it
it was with his sister-in-law. So lie asked
his motlier to go and bring it back. His
mother went and asked her daughter-in-
Jaw to return the keiidrii of her irinL
She replied,—'0 motlier-in-law, why does
lie not himself come to take back his kcndfH f
Let him come for it himself”. Then her
husband's sister came to ask for her
brother's kejidrOf and her sister-in-law
replied, "WTiy does he not come himself
for his ketitimf Go, sister-in-lmr, and
send him to take back his keitdril.*' So she
too went back and and told her brotJier,
"She won't give it to us. You better go
and have it.” So the iriiil went in pro-

448 77ic Birlsofs.

cession to his elder brother's wife's place
carrying with liim a sword, a scimitar,
a shield and a spear, and leading a
horse, an elephant, a camel and an
ass. Arrived at the door of her sister-
in-law, he demanded, 'O sister-in-law, do
please return my keijdril*. His sister-
in-law replied from Avithin, "Do come
in, my iriul, and take your guitar".
On being thus invited into the house,
he fastened his elepliaat, horse, camel,
a.ss, sword, shield and scimitar one at
each of the seven successive gateways
leading to the inner apartants of the
house, and entered the inner apartmcnlE
spear in hand. And there tlie two lived
together as husband and wife.

In due time, the woman gave biTth
to a child. Two days after the birtlr
of the child, they were startled by
the jingling of beUs f ghsii^^ltftmar)
such as are worn on the neck of
pack-buUocks. The prince said to hts
sister-in-law, "Listen! Do you not hear
that jingling sound like that of the bells

The Dead vmng from lUdr Grava, 449

on the neck of my brother’s pack^bullccks?
The woman replied, "Ah, no Brother-
in-law, it must be the sound of the fall
of the water over the precipice in the
river". The prince went up to the roof and
saw at a distance someone wearing a turban
ipign) like that of liis brother, approaching,"
And he exclaimed, "O Sister-in-law 1 There,
1 tlunk, I see the pagri of my brother."
The woman replied, "Ah, no ! Brother-in-
larv, you mistake the Bowers of the kilsi
plant for a Soon the figure of a

horse could be dearly distinguished, and
die man exclaimed, "O Sister-in law, there !
it looks like my brotlier's pony". The
woman replied, "Ah no 1 Brother-in-law, it
is only a deer from the forest *- But now
her husband could be clearly recognized,
and so she concealed her brother-in-law
under a large bamboo-basket (dimni) such
as is used for storing grains.

Before her husband actually reached
home, lire woman cut up her baby into pieces
and set the meat boding in a pot over the
29

The Birhors.

heartli. When her husband arri ved at the
door ahe went with a jug of water to wash
his feet. As she stooped down to wash
his feet, drops of milk from her breasts fell
on her husband's feet, and he asked, "O,
Ran! I What milk is this ?" She replied,
“O Raja, this is only goal's milk". As he
entered, lie saw the elephant and asked,
“Whose elephant is waiting liere ?"
She replied, "Kor thee, O liaja, 1 have
brought this elephant". Then the Raja
noticed successively the horse, tJie camel,
the ass, tlie sword, the shield and the
scimitar, and made similar enquiries and
received similar replies. Then he entered
tlie inner apartments. The Queen now
served him with a dish of rice and meat.
He asked, ”0 Ra^ii, what meat is this ?"
“It is the meat of a goat-kid", she replied.
Then as he began to tuni the meat in the
dish with his hands, he came across what
looked like a human huger, and asked, “O
Rani, urhose finger is this, uow ?" She
replied, “It is the leg of tiie kid".

Now the Rajs noticed a rustling sound

Tht Dmd mingjmn their Graves^ 45i

coming Trom the direction of the dlHiHi,
and asked, “O Ripl, what sound is that V*
The Rapi replied, “O Raja, it la only a
mouse moving about," Now the Rija felt
sure Uiat his ^^ife Imd a lover during Ihs
absence, and asked his wife, *‘ls he one of
us (the family) or a stranger >'■»" The
woman foolishly replied, “An outsider".
At this, her husband became so very
indignant that he thrust his spear through
tlie bamboo-basket ( diumi} and it pierced
his brother in tlie chest. His brotlicr
issued out of the basket and pressing his
wounded cheat with his hands ran back to his
house and lay down on a string-bed //dr-
iiimj and told his mother, "Mother, place
a pot of lire (to warm me) under the bed¬
stead. My days arc numbered". Blood

TliB woida iiflod hy Biritor ^ho
iUB wmua "uw. f _ a;-™ f i oiiromi or m

ntniy to mo wore "i»pan t* r i

in ibo tritie.

452

The Birhors.

began to fall in drops on the ground. His
motlier heard the pattering sound of some¬
thing falling, and asked;, “O Son, what is
that dripping witli a pattering sound ?"
The man replied, **My brother gave me
some hot water, and that is dripping with
a patter”. His fatiier and his sister asked
him the same question and received the
same reply. His brother’s wife now came
and asked the same question and received
the same reply. Then his brother asked him,
“O Brother, wliat is that dripping ?'* "0

Dada", he replied, “You gave me ‘hot water',
and it is that which is dripping”. TJien
the man died of his wound.

A certain young princess had been
engaged to be married to him when his
brother would return home. Now wiien this
princess heard of his betrothed’s death, she
begged lier father to give her a pony,
an elephant and la handful of powdered
chillies. And her father ordered tliese
to be given to her. Witli these she
proceeded to the place where her betrothed
was about to be cremated. Arrived at

TltclDead rising from their Cremes^ 453

tlic crcniiition-j^roiJind she told Jill pnesetit,
“Look above and see how the stars have
come out to witness tlic prince's cremation"*

As all present raised their eyes towards the
sky,slie adroitly sprinkled the chilli-powder
into Uieir eyes, and while they were rubbing
their eyes, she jiitnped into the funeral pyre ^
and got herself cremated witli her afhanced
bridegroom.

According to custom,^® women of the late
prince's family gathered the bones of the
couple in a new earthen urn and in due
course the bones were buried under a stone
slab in an abandoned site known as Puma-
garh ( the old fort ) just outside the village.

After all the ceremonies attendant on
deafli liad been duly performed, the spirit
of tlic deceased prince used to rise every
night from the grave, go unobserved to liis
father's stable, take a horse and ride it and
go to a stream for a bath. And the spirit
of his aflianccd bride would similarly nsc
from the grave, fetch water from a spring

Soc ppi 371 €l

464

The Birhon,

{dUri} in an earthen pitcJier (^tlgril)^ and cook
food for thcroselvesj and both the prince
and his affianced bride would cat tlic food
thus prepared and re-enter fficir graves.
The Rftjl observed tliat the horse was
IJiinning away day after dayj and demanded
an explanation from the groom in charge
of tJic stable. The groom could ofier no
explanatioii and was ordered to be more
careful and keep .stricter watch. And so die
groom began to watch the movements of
the horse day and nig lit, and soon reported
to the Raja tliat every night some person
from Pumagarh would come and spirit
away the horse and, after a time, put it
back into the stable in an exhausted
condition. Thereupon the Raja set two
more ^vatchmen to find out all about
tlie matter. The new wiitchmen con^
finned the groom’s report and further
stated that the spectral rider of the horse
resembled the late prince. So the Raja
and his wife ( Rani) themselves watched
what happened, and one night when the
spectral prince Imd ridden away to the

T/re Actl'Citiny^i of Tuw Lovirs. iS5

stream to bathe and the spectral bride to
fetch water torn the spring, they removed

the empty burial urn
The unsuspecting Prince and his bride too
their meals and prepared to re-enter t leir
grave, when the R-aja seised the prince
b, the hand and the RSpI ought hold of
the bride. The spirits protest^ m orn.
The prince and his bride was led back to
the Raja’s palace, and the Raja and RapT

installed them in their own places as King
and Queen.

XI. The Adventurks of Two Lovers.

Once upon a Hme them U.rf In a
certain town, a Hindu King and a Mul^
niadan merchant who hec^e fast fnen^
to each olher. When theu
both in the family way. they made mut^
^aes of m^J
children to each other if the
out to be of opposite sexes “

them in a tie of cercinonial fnendship l
Un.-y happened to be ef tlic same sea. In

The Birhon.

i36

due time the merchant's wife was brought
to bed of a male ehitd and the R§jit's wife
of a female child. But then the Raja
changed his mind about the marriage of
his daughter. "I am a Haja", he said to
himself, "how can I marry my daughter
to a MulTammadan ? No, I WDn’t’*.

As tlie boy and the girl grew up, they
had frequent opporhmities of meeting, and
became attached to each other. When
they attained youth and came to know
tliat the Raja was opposed to their union,
the merchant's son secretly arranged with
tJic Raja’s daughter to elope with her
one night. On the appointed night, ilie
Raja's daughter ordered the groom
in cliarge of tlie Raja’s horses to bring a
pony for her. A horse v^'as brought and
the princess gave it some gram to eat and
asked it to carry lier, but the horse replied,
"I owe nothing to your father, I do not
cat his grams, but graze at large in the
fields". So she sent away the horse.
Then <in elephant was brought and it too
made a similar answer and was also sent

' Tlt£ Adventure of Lovers 457

away; and ‘next a camel and then an ass,
and they too made similar repUes and were
also sent away. Then the princess aaked
tlie syce to bring the Raja's own Pankhrtlj
horse. This Pankhraj { winged ) horse was
accordingly brought and it agreed to take
her wherever she desired. She got up
on the horse and it flew ivith her on
its back to a Pipar tree, which was the
place of assignment W^ieo she reached
Uicre, a rustling sound among the leaves
was heard and down came her lover from
the tree and sat by the side of the Princess

on Uie PankhrilJ horse.

Away on and on diey rode till they came
to a place where a RQkfishasl {a female
monster) lived with her seven sons. When
the lovers arrived there, the Rakltshasl s sons
were aw'ay fTOm home on the look out for
men or other animals forfood. Th^iRakh-
$ha$l welcomed the princess and her lover
and gave them rice, vegetables, and
fuel and earthen vessels to cook their food,
and said ‘Wait, I am going to catch some
fish too for your dinner”. She went in a

The Bitiwn.

tank, put off her cbtJies and stood waist-
deep in water. The hairs on parts of her
body were of such density and Jength tliai
shrimps easily concealed themselves in
them; and when she came out of lire
waters, she picked up the shrimps from
within their hairy shelter and carried
them home. The princess who had
followed lier unobserved towards the lank
saw' her bared body and understood that
she was a Rixkhshasl. She returned long
before the Rnkiishasli aod seeing that tlie
fuel that was given to tliem consisted of
raw wood full of sap, inferred ttiat it was
a trick of the RnkhshasJ to delay the cooking
and detain them there as long as possible,
and therefore she asked her lover to soak a
doth in ghcc f dariffed butter ) and put it
into the fire. And so he did, and tlie
fire gave a steady flame. And thus rice
and vegetables were quickly boiled. They
took a hasty meal and were about to ride
away when the Riikitshasl arrived. "So
must you go away, son-in-law She asked.
"Yes, we must,” replied the merchant's

The Adventures &f Tmo Lowers. ■455

son. And while the lovers were niountinfi
their horse, the RakJtshasl made up a
parcel containing a seer ( 2lbs.) ol mus-
tard seeds and fastened it unobserved

to tlie tail of the horse.

Now when the RitkJisha^ saw her sons
return home, she told them, "Couldn't
you have come earlier ? A he-goat and a
she-goat had been here". Her sons asked,
"How far may they have gone T’ She
replied, "Go, follow the trail of mustard*
seeds which must have been dropped
on the u.’ay by the horse to whose tail
I tied those seeds. Where you find
shoote of mustard sprouting on the rrad,
you may be sure that they are not far ofi -
The Rakhshas brothers now went ^
pursuit of the princess and her lover. Tire
six elder aikhshas broUiers went ahead; ^d
the youngest followed tliem a
as he was carrying a huge quantity of boded
rice and roasted buffalo meat for icir
meals. Wlien the six brothers came m
sight of their coveted prey, they rushed
to attack them; but when they sought to

460

The Bithors,

attack tlicm from behind, the PankhrUj horse
would repluse them witii violent kicks
and when they sought to give them a
frontal attack, the merchant's son would
hurl his spear at them. And thus, one
after another, the six RaJdishas brothers
were killed. And tlie Princess and her lover
were about to ride away when the youngest
son of the Rakhshas came up and saw the
fate of Ills cider brothers. In the guise of a
simple rustic, he approached the mcrchant’s
sou and begged to be employed as a syce
or groom for his horse. His prayer was
granted and he was allowed to take his
seat behind them on the horse,

Wlien they arrived at the bank of
a large pool inside a forest, the mer¬
chant's son stopped the horse, got down
and went a.’ivay to satisfy a call of nature,
leaving his spear, sword and shield on
the ground. The ‘Syce, too, got down,
took up the weapons in Ms liacds, and
waited. As soon as the merchant’s son
returned, tlie 'sjee' cut off his head with
Uie sword, and attempted to mount tlie

Th£ AdvenUtres of Ttoo Lovers. W

horse again. But the horse kicked him
with such violence that the pretended
*Syce' fell down dead.

Now the princess dismounted, and took
up in her arms tlie severed head and body of
her dead lover, and began to wail piteously.
The horse also began to neigh in sympa¬
thetic grief. The god Mahadeo and his
spouse Parv'atT happened to be passing
within car shot on their way from the
jungle where the had been to cut w'ood
for making ploughs with. Pflr^'atT
touched with the piteous walls of the prin¬
cess, and exclaimed, 'Listen 1 Some one
is weeping aloud in grief*.

But Mahadeo pooh-poohed him, saying,
"Pshaw I You females always hear people
weeping and wailing, I say, that's nothing.
But Parv'ati was importunate- "Let us go
and see", she insisted, "somebody seems
to be in distress". So Mahadeo had to
yield, and they both went where the prin¬
cess was bewailing her murdered Iiusband.
Mahadeo and Parvati asked her how it
happened, and she related the story. They

463

Tlte Birliors,

told her, “Look up and see what a
number of stars have come out in the
sky". And just as she looked upwards,
tliey sprinkled powdered chillis into her
eyes so that she could not see anytliing
and began to rub her irritated eyes.
In the meanwhile, MaliAdco sprinkled
a life-giving beverage on the corpse,
and the mcrctmni's son got up as if
from sleep, and asked the princess,
"Have I slept long ?" In the mcanwJiilc,
Maiiadeo and PUrvatl turned into sha¬
dows and disappeared.

The princess related to her lover all that
had happened. Then the princess ejcclai-
med, “If I be really the daughter of a king,
may there spring up a city here in this
jungle and a palace in the centre for us
to live in". And forthwith a city and a
palace appeared, and there the tw'o lived
liappily as King and Queen.

The Prince m^d hii Ungrateful Prolhm, i63

x». The Prince and his Ungrateful
Brothers.

A certain R5ja had seven sons. The
Raja of a neighbouring city had seven
daughters. And it w-as arranged to marry
the seven sons of the former each to one
of the seven daughters of the latter. Seven
palanquins were brought to can7 the
seven princes to their affianced brides'
house. But the eldest prince said tliat lie
would not Inmself go but send liis own
sword and shield as his proxy. Accor¬
dingly his sword and shield were placed
on one of the palanquins and the other
princes seated themselves on the remain¬
ing palanquins. While they were setUng
out in marriage proces.sion, the eldest
prince warned his brotliers not to take the
shorter route, for by its side dwelt a fierce
Rakhshas, and instructed them to go by a
round-about route. Accordingly, the pro¬
cession went by the round-about route.

When the palanquins approached the
brides' place, tlie eldest princess saw that

464

The Birhors,

the foremost palanquin w-iLhout a

human occupant, and she lamented in song:—

“In seven palanquins but sis grooms come !

O Father I O Motlief I My groom here
is none !

In seven palanquins but sis grooms ride;

In mine no groom but mere sword and
shield",

Ttien the weddings were duly solem¬
nised, The eldest princess was wedded
to the sword and shield and the younger
princesses to the sbt princes respectively.

When the marriage procession vris
returning home with the newly wedded
brides, the princes decided to take the
shorter route. “We have such a large
retinue", they said, "How can the Kakhshas
harm us" ? So they went by that route,
and the Rakhshas devoured them whole,—
not only the princes and their brides and
retinue but even palanquin and all. When
the eldest prince found tliat the return
home of the marriage party was long over¬
due, he suspected that they had taken the
shorter route and been devoured by the

The Prince and His Ungrateful Brothers. 465

Rakhshas, He accordingly secured some
common peas and a number of iron peas,
and ^th these set out for the place where
the liakhshas lived. As soon as hc^ was
within sight, the RaMishas exclaimed, **Ah !
There again. 1 have got a new victim".
The Prince told him, "Wait I Here are some
peas. You lake some of these and so do
1. First grind them into bits with
teeth, and then you will eat me up. But if
you fail to grind them down and 1 succeed,

1 shall cut you up into pieces". The
Rakhshas tried tlm iron peas and failed;
but the prince took the real peas and
chewed them and ate them up. And so he
cut down the Rakhshas with his sw'ord and
ripped open his stomach. And out came
the entire marriage procession just as it had
been devoured by the K^^khshasp- ^

,nd bridegrooms and the sword riid
all in tlieir respective patuiqums. and the

retinue in their rear.

The six princes consulted one another
and agreed, ''Oar brother lias cut down
30

466

The Birkor^.

sych a powerful RaJthshas, If he lives, he
may also kill us one day. So let us put him
to deatli". And accordingly one of them
thrust his spear into the body of their
unsuspecting deliverer, and the procession
moved on leaving him there mor tall y
wounded. The eldest princess now returned
to her father's place and the other prin¬
cesses went with their husbands to theirs.

While the wounded prince was writhing
in mortal pain, ^ MahSdeo and his wife
happened to be on their way to see how their
dommion (the cartli ) fared. The goddess’
notice was attracted to the wounded prince
'“'Tithing in agony. And she induced Jxer
husband to go and sec him. So they went
to the wounded prince and asked hii:i what
happened. He related tlie whole story.
MabUdeo told him, “Look and sec how
many stars have come out in the sky
above I” As he tried to lift his eyes up¬
wards, they sprinkled powdered chillies into
his eyes, and while he wtis rubbing his
eyes, they sprinkled life-giving water
{, nectar lover his woundp and afl at once his

The Prince ttnd His Ungraieftil Brothers. 467

wound disappeared and he stood up quite
hale and hearty.

Now he reflected imthin himself, “I
saved my brothers from deatli, and they
sought to kill me in return, 1 should not
go back to the house where they live". And
so he went incognito to the house of the
Raja whose daughter was married to him
by proxy, and took sendee under liira as
a field labourer (dkUngar}.

One evening, after he had finished his
day’s work, some boys of the Rijl's house¬
hold pressed liim to tell a story fkahini}.
So he began to repeat tiis own story in
the third person, from the starting of the
marriage procession of the princes and
the sword and spear up to the employ¬
ment of the eldest prince as tlie dhilngar
in his father-in-law’s house. Now, the
eldest princess overheard the story and
discovered that lie was no otlier tlian licr
own husband. And husband and wife were
now happily united and went to live in a
house of their own.

^8 Birhors.

xni. How THE Dead and BtjRnvD
Children of the Raja wEJiE
hestoredto Life.

A certain R^jA had seven RAnTs { queens)
but none of them bore him any child.
One day a BrJlhman sage happened to visit
the Raja's palace. He instructed the Raja
as to how he might get sons : "Go with your
sword and shield to a mango tree, throw
your sword at the tree and bring home as
many mangoes as fall on your shield, and
let all your queens eat those mangoes".
The RAja did as he was instructed but
could get only one mango. And he brought
the mango home and gave it to his wives
to eat. His youngest wife was away
from home at the time. And so her co¬
wives divided the mango amongst them*
selves. When the youngest Rani came
home and saw the rind of a mango,
she asked the other RapTs, "Where did
you get the mango? Have you not kept
a share for me ?" They said, "We got it
by chance, and forgot to keep a share for

Risurrcction of ifie Dead Prinet: & Princess, 469

you." So the youngest RipT scooped
out the rind and ate what iittlc she could
get out of It,

In time the youngest queen showed
signs of pregnancy but the otlier Rltnls
showed none. When the time for his
wife's delivery wtis at hand, the Raja
went out on a hunting expedition, leav-
ing iostnjctions with his other wlvra and
his servants to sound a golden drum if
a son was bom to the youngest queen
and to sound a silver drum if a daughter
was born. In due time tlie R»iu gave
birth to twins—a sou and a daughter.
Before the motlier could look at her new¬
born babes, her six co-wives secretly
removed the twins and in their places
placed a broom and a piece of half-bumt
fire-wood in the lying-in room. The mid*
wife, at the instance of the six elder
Rai^ tlirew away the new-born infants mlo
a pit from which pot-maters (KiimhUrs)
used to take earth for making pottery.

Soon afterwards an old childless Kumh^
couple came to take earth for their

470

The Birhors,

pottery from the pit, and saw the two babies
lying in the pit. The old man told his
wife, "Let us not miss this opportunity.
Earth ive may take from the pit whenever
we like. But \vt can't get another chance
of possessing cJiildren. So tet us take
these abandoned children to ourselves".
And so they did.

In the meanwhile, when the Raja returned
home, the other Rai:iTs told him that the
youngest Rani had given birth to a broom
and a piece of half-burnt fire-wood. At this
nevfS tlie Raja's exasperation knew no
bounds, and he ordered the youngest RanT
to be driven out of the house. And the
Raja's order im duly carried out.

Now when the adopted children of tlie
KOmliir grew old enough to walk, tliey would
often play about in the neiglibourhood of
the Raja s palace. And the RapTs saw them
and suspected who tlicy were. And so one
day when tire boy and the girl were play¬
ing about near Lhcir house, their step-motlrcrs
managed to give them poisoned bread to
cal. And they ate the bread and died.

Rds«rrifci/ci« of the Dead Prince & Princess. 471

The Kumhar buried them in tlie jungle
close by. From the grave of tlie boy there
shot up a plantain tree and from that of
the a pinjdr tree.

Once the Rlja's servants (dh&ngar)
while cutting wood near the graves saw a
beautiful Pinjdr flower. And as one of
the servants attempted to pluck the flower,
tlic flower sang,—

"O ! Plantain tree I Thou Brother dear J

The Raja's man seeks Piiijar flower".

The plantain tree sang back in reply,

"O Pinjar flower 1 Dear sister mine \

Leave then the earth, and heavenward
rise,"

At this, the flower lifted itself iu raid-
air. And the Raja's dhmgars marvelled,
hastened home to their master and
reported to him what they saw and heard.
Thereupon the Raja liimsclf went to the
spot in his palanquin. Before iJ^e Raja
arrived, the flower liad been back to its
place. As the Raja stretched out his liand
to pluck it, tlie flower sang,—

Tht. Birbars.

“O Plantain tree ? My brother dear !

My Father here seeks Pinjar flower.

What say'st thou, my brother dear ?"

Tlie plantain tree replied,-^

‘Thou Pinjar flower ! My sister dear !
Leave thou the ground, and heavenward
rise.”

At tJiis the Pinjar tree with its flower
aseended a little way up above the ground.
Tlien the RajA sent for his eldest RapI,
and asked her to try and pluck iJie flower,
Af> the Rani stretched out her hand to pluck
the flower sang,—

O Plantain tree ! My Brother dear I
Our eldest mother wants Pinjar flower”
The plantain tree sang in reply.—

‘Thou Pinjar flower ! My Sister dear !
Leave thou the cartli, and heavenwatd
rise.'*

A jito|>tii4>iticr is nnior to aiie'H qwh motburi

ffl culled ‘UarSrmSj’ M "lildur urettufr', mkI wIiqd thorn
^ moTD tlum oofl Ato|)-aioiliL<ni, they aro tBBpcctiwflly
d«tnHlicd aiid FtJdroiiad thoir stetHibildioc an
‘IkriuiAi’, (aldnst mother), ■ijiAjlitinii' (Mconit
iHQtliQr ) aaU 4iO od ncttjrdin^ to i^niisrity*

RcsurrcctioH of the Dead Prince &Prinms. 473

Tlicreupon tlic Pinjar tree rose higher
up in the air. Then the other five Rapis
were successivciy siumnoncd and they
similarly tried to pluck the flower and failed.
And similar dialogues in song passed bet¬
ween tlic Pinjdr flower and the Plantmii
tree.

The songs aroused the Raja’s suspicions
and he sent his men to seek out tlic
youngest RanT. The Raja's men found
her out and infonued her of the Raja’s
wishes. She said, “How can I go ? I have
neither suitable clothes nor a presentable
appearance; my nails liavc grown long,
my hair is unkempt, and 1 have not bathed
for a long time"* They went and
reported ail this to the Raja. And
the Raja sent her suitable dotlics and other
things that she required. She had her nails
pared, bathed, put on new clothes, and
went to the spot on a palanquin.

Arri\'ed there, slie held out a portion of
her cloth for the flow’cr to drop into it.
The flower now sang,—

414

Tftc Birhors^

**0 Plantain tree t Thou Brother mine !
My mother seeks the Pin jar flower,

O Plantain tree ! Thou brother mine 1*’
The planiain tree Joyfully sang back in
reply,

*'0 Pin jar flower 1 My sister dear I
Come down from heaven to earth below,
O Pinjtlr Flower I Thou sister dear
And now alt on a sudden the Pin jar
plant and the plantain tree were trans¬
formed into a girl and a boy and sat down,
one on each knee of their mother, the
youngest RSnT.

The Raja now took the youngest RlnT
and her two children home in great pomp>
He then ordered six wells to be excavated
as soon as possible. When the wells had
been dug to lialf the standard depth, the
Raja Slid that water will not issue out
of the wells unless the Vh uman ’ ceremony
of the wells, as at marriage ( t4dc pp.
193—4 atife ) is performed. And so he
asked the six elder Rants to make cAri*
man of the wells. As soon as the six:
Rants each approached the mouth of one

A Cltasi's Rdkhslias Uncles & Heavenly Wife. 47S

of tlie six wells for the purpose, the
HtljA's servants in obedience to the
Hiji's orders, pushed down the six
RAuI's into the six wells and buried them
therein.

The RajA now went home with the youn¬
gest Rant and her children and lived
Iiappily witli tliem.

XIV. A Ghasi Youth, his Rakhshas
Uncles, and Heavenly Wite.

A RSja liad seven wives. An old GhAsi
woman used to supply die Raja's wives
( RAnTs ) with garlands of flowers every day.
The Ghasi woman's son used to catch fish
with a fish-trap (kiimni). One day an
exceedingly beautiful BintittikA KadAnib
Bower entered the boy's fish-trap and he
brought it home. His mother was delight¬
ed to see it and said, "J shall take this
to the Rani and secure a hadsome reward
for it." She took it to the eldest RApi and
was tiajidsomcly rewarded. The otlier
Rants asked for one such flower each, but

476

The Birhors.

the old Ghasin said, “Only one ^vas cauglit
in my son’s fish-trap’'. So the other RapT's
went to the Rflja and told him, "The old
Ghasi woman has brought a beautiful
Bintdfika kadamb flower for the eldest
Rapt, Please, order her to bring one for
each of us too. The Ghasi woman and
her son were summoned, and the Raja
ordered the young man to bring six more
of such flowers on pain of dt^th.

The Ghasi youth was at his vvits' end
and knew not what to do. His mother
told him, "Take heart, my boy. Go straight
along yonder road. At some distance you
will come to a lull by the road side. That
hill is your maternal uncle. Strike at it
with your axe* and your maternal unde
will appear before you in his proper shape"*
And accordingly the young man walked
on, axe in liand, till he came to tlie
hill. And as soon as he struck it widi
his axe out came a Rakhshas, hungering
for human flesh. “Now, at length,
after long long years, I have found
meat to eat”, exclaimed tlie RStklislus.

A Gltasi's Rnkhshas Undes & Heavenly Wife, 477

"jQhar ( obeisance ) to thee t My dear
Mcimu ( matemal uncle )■ I" said the
Ghasi youth to the RaJdislias, The Rakh-
shas said to himsdf, ‘‘Ah I This hoy calls
me ‘raamti' \ mother's brother); otherwise
I w^uld Ijave cleaned my teeth of their
dirt (i, £., by chewing human meat)." Then
the Rakhshas asked his Ghasi nephew
what brought him theie and w’hy he sought
him out The nephew told his uncle, “My
mother told me you have got Bintapka
kadtjtnb flowers, I am in sore need of
some". The Rakhshas directed him to
another hUl, and said, "In that hill >^u
liavc another mdmtl of yours who can give
you such flowers. Go and strike the hill
with your axe and he will come out". The
young man went to the other rock, struck
lus axe against it, and his maternal uucle
came out in his proper shape of a Rftkiishas.
Before the Rakhshas could seke this
opportunity of satisfying his cannibal pno*
pcnsitics, he learn t that the man was his
sister's son and came for some Binliiflka
kadmitb flowers. So the Rakhshas liad to

478

The Birhors.

forego the anticipated enjoyment of feastitig
on human flesh, and liad to entertain his
nephew as hjs guest. He gave him one
grain of rice to boil; but, when boiled in
water, it yielded two jar-fuis of bhai (cooked
rice }; and he gave him one grain of pulse
which, when boiled, yielded one large jar¬
ful of soup. When they had hnished
their meals, the Ghasi youth asked his
maternal uncle, "Mamu ! When shall 1
have the flowers 1 have come for ?" The
RAkhshas said, “I had them with me. But
they are now witir another mtimn of
yours”. And he told him the wlicreabonts
of that other mil mil.

So the Ghasi youth went to the latter’s
place and asked him for the flow^ers. ’'All
riglit”, said the Mamu, ”You will Jiave tlicm
soon. Stop here for a few days, and look
after my cattle. And 1 shall in the mean¬
while find out some of those flowers for
you". So the GhAsi youth began to graze
his uncle's cattle. His uncle warned him
not to go himself nor take the cattle in a
particular direction, although he might go

A GhatJii's Rakltskas Uncles & Heavenly Wife.479

at will in every other direction. Every
day he used to go out to graze the cattle,
and took some iniirki (fried rice ) with him
for eating when lie felt hungry. For three
days he avoided going in the direction
against wliich his uncle had u'amed him.
But on the fourth day, his curiosity got the
better of him, and he took his cattle to
graze in that direction. After proceeding
some distance he came across a tuik in
wliicii Sing BOnga’s (tlie Sun-God s)
daughters were bathing. The youngest
daughter of Sing-bOnga, was the fairest of
all. He reincmbered tiiat one of his uncle s
neighbours had told him that the daugliters
of Sing'bOngii would give him the Rowers
he wanted, if only he could remove the
clothes which they left on the bank of tiic
tank while bathing. He now saw the
clothes of Siog-b5ng5*s daughters lying on
the bank of tlie tank. Sing-bOngS- s daugh¬
ters noticed him and called him and said,
*'Halo I Shepherd boy 1 Would you liave
some oil and lootii-brush to cleanse your
teeth and take a bath ? Tlie youth said,

480

The Birhan.

'yes’, and took the preferred oil and tooth-
bnislt, cleansed hts mouth and took a hasty
bath, and was then making away with the
clothes of the heavenly maidens, when the
elder daughters of Sing-bOngtl addressed
him in song,—

“Turn round, turn round, fair youth t

Our youngest Sister well give to thee".

At this he turned back and was forthwith
metamorphosed into a tree.

In the meanwhile tiis maternal uncle
wondered at the delay in liis nep hour’s
returning Jiome with the cattle, and suspec¬
ted he might have trespassed into the
forbidden quarter. So he himself went in
that direction and found that his nephew
had been transformed into a sc$nar (botnbax
uiidabaricum} tree. He cut down the tree,
anti forthwitli his nephew returned to tife
in his proper shape. His M&mii now
demanded of him wliy he had gone that
way, though forbidden to do so. He avoi¬
ded an explanation by saying, “They
promised to give me their youngest
sister in marriage if I turned round, and

A GIiasi*s RaJcJtshas Uncles & Heavenly Wife. 4St

so 1 did and was thus transFornicd'',

The niQmil eagerly asked, “Did they say
'\Ve mil give* (her to you) His

nephew replied, “Yes, they positively

said so”. Then his mtVnii told him, *’Go
again, and Uiis time tike care that you

don’t look back". So the Clh^si youth again
went to tire tank and was again asked if he
would have oil and tooth-brush. He ac
ccpled them, took a hasty bath and again
made away with tire clothes of Sing-b&ngH's
daughters. Again, the daughters of Sing-
bCnga sang ;—

“Turn round, turn round, fair youth 1

And this fair maiden here will be yours, "

But tliis time, the GhSsi j'outh, mthout
looking back, ran straight to his
house. The girls ran after him, and, arrived
at his place, complained to him,

“Your nephew has brought away our clo¬
thes. Do, please, ask him to return them".
The Mdiaii asked them, "What did you
promise to give her on the former occasion ?
They admitted that tliey had promised to
31

The Birhors,

him their youngest sister for his wife.
“Then do give her to my nephew”, said
the uncle. And the fair heavenly maiden
was given to the Ghast youth as his wife.

His bride told him, “Come, and live
with me in my parents’ house". And the
husband complied. At night when his
wife would go from their bedroom to join her
sisters in dancing, the GhAsi youtii would
go there by a different route ; and the
daughters of SIng-bCnga not suspecting
who he was and taking him to be a stmnger
would ask him to play on the earthen
drum, and he would gladly do so. Before
his wife returned to their bcd*room he
w'ould go back and lie down on his bed.
One morning lie told his wife, “I was
dreaming that your seven sisters were all
dancing and I %vas playing on tlie drum".
She now suspected that her husband was
the supposed stranger who played on the
drum. Then she told him, “Let us go to
your parents' place". He said, “But I am
sure, you won’t live there. How then
shall I iive without you ?“ She gave him

A C/fasi's l/nc/es& H^apgnfy 4S3

a flute and told him, "Whenever you play
on this flute, E shall be with you”. And
the Ghasi youth took the flute and went
home, as desired. And whenever he
played on the flute, hia wife would join
Iiim. One day he missed his flute. He
had dropped it on the road and some other
man had picked it up, and played on ttie
flute. At the sound, the Ghasrs heavenly
wife appeared aud found tliat a stranger
liad got hold of the flute* She contrived to
make off with the flute and returned home
to her father's place.

In the meanwhile her husband, taking
Ids pet sSga bird ( parrot) went to his
place, and told him about his
misfortune. At his mUntu's advice he sent
liis sflga to his wife with a message. As
instructed, the siigd went to her and
told her "0 Mother 1 Have you descried
my father for good ?" She understood
that the slJgil had come from her husband.
So she made an assignation througli tlie
stigij. And at the appointed hour she went
to him. And thus reunited once more.

484

The Birhors,

they decided they should not part again,
but should henceforth live in a kiimhn
i leaf-sheUcr ) of their own and earn their
orni living, So they built a hut for them¬
selves near a certain Raja's city, and the
man made with his own hands a wooden
bedstead (parkSttf) for sale. They took it
to tlie market. But when intending pur¬
chasers inquired about its price, they said,
“Take it and the piirkdm will tell you wliat
it is worth". People wondered at the
reply and avoided the pilrkOm as some¬
thing uncanny. The Raja of the place,
howeii'cr, felt inquisitive and said, "I shall
Icam its price from the bedstead then.
Let me have it". And he took it home
and at night lay down on it, but could not
get a wink of sleep. After a while, tliink-
ing that the Raja was asleep, one of tiic
tegs of the bed told the other legs, ^‘The
Raja is now asleep, so Jet me go and take
a walk all round the city to see what it i.s
like'*. And so the leg went round the city.
And in a secluded part of the city it saw
four thieves dividing amongst llicmselves

A Ghost's Rakhshas Unchis & Heavenly Wife. 48S

a heap of silver and gold coins they had
stolen from tlic Raja's house- The leg
struck a violent blow at each of the thiex'es
and tlicy all fell down dead. On its
return, tlie leg related to its companions
what it had seen; and the other legs also
decided to take each its turn in visiting die
city. Tlie second leg llien went out and
saw a man embracing another man's wile
at a corner of tlic road, and it struck a
violent blow at them and left them both dead
on the road. On bis return, the leg related
to its companions what it saw. As the
night was nearly ended, the other two legs
decided to visit the city next night.

Now, the RAja lay aw^ke all night and
heard all that the legs said. As soon as
day dawned, he sent some of his ser-
vants to examine the places mentioned by
Uie two legs and to report at once w'hat they
found there. And their report fully agreed
wilJi what the two legs of the bed bad
reported.

Then the Rljl sent for the strangers who
made and sold the bed, The GbSsi youiJi

The Birhors.

and his heavenly wife carae. The Rija
asked them, "What price do you demand

for the bed ?” The man said, “Did not
the bed tell you what it is worth ?’’ The
Raja insisted, “Say, w^hal you will take for
iL" The Ghasi's wife re plied, "We do
not uunt any money. Do thou order that
the ktimba in which wc are now living
turn into a palace”. In those days, the
words of a Raja were words of power.
Tlie Raja said, “May the turn into

a palace'And the kfimbti was forthwith
transformed into a palace. And there Sin^-
bongo's youngest daughter and Iier human
husband lived long in happiness and pros^
perity.

XV. How THE Sun ate up His Children.

The Sun (Sin^r) and moon (Ch€i»dti}
arc related to each other as brother and
sister. Of the stars ^ ipil-ko ^ the more brilliant
are the children of the Sun and the rest are
the children of the Moon. The great heat
that emanated from the Sun and Ms clilldrcn,

How the Sun ate up His Children. 48?

troubled all creation. One day the Sun
asked her sister for some vegetable curry.

She gave him a dish of curry made of
the lotus flower (S/likid-bH). The curry
tasted exceedingly sweet And so the Sun
asked his sister what tlie curry was made
of. The Moon, with a wew to save
creation from being scorched up by the
cumulative lieat emanating from the Sun
and his childrenj cunningly repliech “Tliis
curry is ma de of the flesh of my children,
the stars". And the Moon soon afterwards
took care to keep her own children in
hiding. Tlic Sun began to eat up his own
children, and thus one by one the brilUant
stars were eaten up—all except one who
had gone to a distant place for dancing.
This was Bburka or the Morning Star,

488

The Birhors.

xv’j. The stohy of Dalel Sing and
Makund Sing.

An old BirhOr couple bad two sons, Dakl
Sing and Makund Sing by name. While
other young men of the {Undii worked,
Dalel and Makund would loaf about, doing
nothing. One day the old couple went to the
jungles to collect creepers yielding fibres
of wMch strings and ropes are made.
Tliey came across a iQinit jiim or gilttgil
busli whidi was laden with fruit known
as ckih5r. The old woman began to
gather the fruit wEiilc the old man began
to cut and collect the creepers. When tlie
woman had gathered quite a heap of cliihor
fruit, she opened a few and found them
all stuffed with silver coins. Then the
couple made bags or receptacles mtli
the creepers to carry the fruit home.
Tlie bigger receptacles called patOnis were

“■ Thin sterj wm ralatod to tnd liy Rndliii Birhor of
Pahar-Sinj: ( tluuik Attgun, Dt. thuitihi ) vho Iiul
Iiunn] it frtiiu mmo Uliijii Qirlibni of thit HoEanholil'h
DiatricL

The Siory of Dald Sing & Makund Sing. 489

carried home by the man in a carry*
ing-pole, and the smaller receptacles
known as dtpil were carried by the woman
on her licad. When the do-nothing sons
saw what the cfiihdr tniits contained, they
were elated with joy at the sight of so
much silver. They shook off Uicir accus¬
tomed Ictliargy, aspired to be kings of the
land, and with an army of labourei3 set
out to demarcate the boundary of tlic coun¬
try w'hich they wanted to have for their
kingdom. They halted at village MOsOnga
in llic Tamar Pargana, and there set up
some chsp (Baithinia VaJiln) Gbr^s as Uie
emblem of the BirhOf KaJ.

Now, it so happened tliat at that lime
the Sing Raja. { Raja of Singhbhmn) had
invaded the capital of the Raja of Ch^lS
Nagpur, and tire latter tied from his capital
and took refuge in Katkin Garh near Paina
Palifif {about four miles from Jonlia).
When the lifija ot Chota Nagpur heard tliat
Dal el Sing and Mjikund Sing wanted to
found a kingdom wider than his, he sent
for them. When Dale! and Makund arrived

490

r/(t’ Birhors,

at Katkin Garh, they found that the
had gone for a bath in the Hundru Falls.
The two brothers went there. When the
Raja saw them, he asked them who they
were. On being told their names, the
Raja asked them, ‘Have you marked off
the area that you want to rule”. "Yes, Sir,"
they answ-ered. Then the Raja told them
"Go and see if the Sing RaJA is still at my
capital or has left it If he be there still, slay
him, and if he has left, bring me news,
and you shall liavc tlic territory that you
seek". They accordingly went to the capi*
tal of the Chota Ngapur Raja and found that
tlic Sing Raja had gone back to his own
kingdom. Then Dal el Sing and Makund
Sing returned to Katkin Garh and informed
the Raja Umt his enemy had departed.

Thereupon the Raja returned to his
capital with them. The two Birhur brO''
thers lived at the Raja's palace for a few days
and then asked him when he was going to
give them the promised Raj. The Rajs
consulted his counsellors, and decided that
the most troublous part of the country

Ttiti story of DtUel Sin^ & Mohund 49t

should be assigned to them and d they
could subjugate it and survive they might
rule there as kings. And so the Raja
assigned to tirem the country then occupied
by the Ramgarh Raja. Wlieti they arrived
at Ramgarh, the Raja of the place had gone
out to take a bath. The two Birhdf
brothers u'aylaid him and cut off his head
with a battle axe, and occupied his territory.
The ruins of buildings now seen at
Ramgarh are [pointed out as] tiic remains
of the BirliOf Raja's paiace. Dalcl Sing and
Makund Sing next fought and kiUed the
chiefs of Chaingarha, Karanpura, Gola and
eighteen other chiefs and ruled over the
entire country. The present Rajas of Ram¬
garh arc the descendants of the BirhOf
Rajas Dalcl Sing and Makund Sing.

* * ** Tlioy MS imlly ttio FninH of tliB fortii and bnildiiiga of
diD Chief* of Bamgarh. the lUicwton of “o
R&j* of FblinH, who ociupted it for limit * hurdrtfl
joftTfl after thnj loft Boomij id 1670* RojngiLr i tA
tthtiMt thirty milai frum BanehL

** Tho pramt Baingorb f Pwlma) HajM clKm toho
dwccnilwiti of OM BiffJcoi the youoBer of two
lUjput brotbew ( Uto ddor beug kMim u SingUw }

493 The Birkon.

Such arc some specimen of BirhOr folk
stories, the dramatic recital of which witli
characteristic gestures and varying intoua-
tions to an eager and intensely sympattictic
audience has to be actually witnessed
to appreciate their full signiheance to the
narrator and Uie listeners. The minds of
the narrator and his listeners appear to
electrify and react upon each other and com-
bine in moulding the style and diction of the
narrative, of wliich a halting translation in a
foreign tongue can give no idea. At one of
ttiesc evening recitations you hnd Uie
audience en rapport, as it were, willi the
story-teller, listening with rapt attention
as if to their own utterances, punctuating
the narrative now and again with nods of
appro%'at, exclamations of pity or of surprise

vtha itAitE lo hJivo ceme fiT)in]i Bunfl^LklmiLdi iLfid
Uken anricc usid^ir thu ihm lUfcja of Ch#tft-N"igptir-
Ekgdoo carfcij gut & kJogdufn for

after duly flubjugaiitig tbg petty chiefii of thi
tertitery now kdraTn m BaEngarLu The ^oology
of the |>reseDt Eitj family ono DevIltI Sln^ ^

Uhi fourth iQ di^ccnt from nod Mokimd

( 1763—1773 ) m teuili !□ dcsoont-

Condiisiou.

493

and bursts of hearty laughter. Besides
affording deliglitful recreation, these stories
supply a rude kind of food for the intel¬
lect, imagination, and emotions of this
primitive people, and serve to blend tlicir
rude present with a ruder past—to weave
together their present rude beliefs, customs,
and modes of life with a ruder stage
which they have since outgrown but
retniniscenccs of which linger on in
these folk stories. True, some of their
folktales appear to have been borrowed
from tbeir neighbours of a somewhat
higher culture; but the matter and
form of those stories liave been so trans¬
formed by tlieir own w'ays of thought and
expression, and their own intellectual and
emotional needs, and have been so inter-
woven witti elements from beliefs Mid
customs, arts and crafts characteristic of
their own social li^^p they may be
fairly regarded as genuine social products
of the tribe.

CHAI^ER XI I.

Science and Natural History, Fine Arts
and tlie Useful Arts, Games and
Amusements.

I. Science and Natural History.

The primitive BirhOr, like his civilized
fellowTiian, seelcs to explain to himself the
causes of natural phenomena according
to Ills own feeble lights. Ignorant of the
proper method of scientihe investigation, he
naturally draw's mostly upon liis imaginatioD
and invents explanations which, though
crude and often fantastic, appear to satisfy
the primitive mind.

We have already seen how tlie flirhOf
has invented or perhaps borrowed and
adapted myths to explain the creation of
man, the position of the sky, and the origin
of the stars.

Oright of Solar attd Lumr Eclipses, 49S

As for the causes of the eclipses of the

Sun and the Moon, these luminaries, BirhOf

myths tell us, stood secu-

Otiiriii of Splor rity (or the debts of poor
udLiuiorZoli ^ ™ j-.

JSOB- men* The creditors now

and again send chttprasis
or bailiffs to arrest tlie Sun and the Moon
for the debts of those for whom they stood
security, WTien the Sun or the Moon
is thus seized by the bailiff and there
is a struggle, tlic luminary concerned is for
a while partly or totally concealed from
view, and we call it a solar eclipse or a
lunar eciipse, as the case may be. On the
occasion of a lunar eclipse a BirhOf
strikes tw'o iron impleinenls agamst each
other tliree times, apparently to scare away
the poor bailiffs, and then exposes the iron
implements in the open. Later, these
implements are given to a blacksmith who
makes them into bracelets and anklets to be
worn on the arms and legs of children to
protect them from llie evil attentions of
spirits and to ward off bad dreams ( of
ghosts and the like ).

496 The Birhors.

The Mommg Star is called by the BirhOf
the Bhflrka and the Kvening Stir as the
Kidd The bright star

!nu) StasS' that apears earlier lliaa
the Bltdrkn i$ called the
Kttinbitru liigil Ipil { thief-driving star).
In a year in which the Kidii Ipil appears to
the BlrhOr to be more in evidence than the
Bhnrka, the BirhOf apprehends famine or
scarcity; and in a year in which the
Bhfirka is more in evidence than the Kidft
Ipil^ plenty of game and other food is
expected. The reason wliich the BirhOf
assigns for this is as follows; Evening is
the lime when the Birhors on their return
home with game or other eatables from the
forest take as hearty a meal as they can
pnx:urc, and the Kidd Ipil seeing the
BirliSfs happy and rejoicing evening after
evening, reports to Bhagwdn { God ) that
the BirhuTs have plenty and to spare, and
so God sends famine. But the Bhurka
sees the BirhOrs rising hungry from their
beds at dawn and reports to Bhagwdn that

The Origin of Hail-stortits& Hoarfrost. 497

tiic BirhOrs are ramishicg foe uentnof iood,.
And God accordingly sends thenifiMy.

The formation of haiJ-slones is thus
accounted for by tlie BirhUf; Tn olden
times the clinjatc of the
TJu ^giii of BirhOf country' was mueb
Soaz^ftt. colder than it is ncpw^nnd
hoar-frost (rtitSng) used
to 'fall from above' every night and 'W'as
found in the morning coveiing the surface
of the earth. But the climate is much

warmer now than of old and we have much
less frost now than before and that too
only for a sluirt time during the year. So
the frost goes on accumulating in the sky
and fall's down from time to time as hail¬
stones (iln'l 1. Some BiihOis say that
hoar-frost (nUang} is the 'offspring'' o£
liail-stones. If hoar-frost does not 'fall'^
as soon as it 'takes birth' ( i, e., is formed), it
goes on 'growing' and later falls down as
'full-growm* ( fully-developed) hail-stones.

The rainbow, according to the BirhOp,
is formed by water which the BOnde-til?

49S

Tin liirhors.

6“feles out of
its mouth.

The mythical heroes Rflm-Lakhshman
have an old grudge against the species of
yellowish frog known as
which leaps about
ThxuidflT-helt- from tree to tree and
croaks at night in the rainy

season. Whenever Rilm^LakhsJiman see
one of these frogs, they shoot tlieir arrows
at it with their mighty bow from above and
the roaring sound of the huge bow is wliat
men call thunder, and the arrow-heads

come down as thunder*bolts The

Birhdf identifies these thunderbolts with
prehistoric stone-celts u^hich are now and
then picked up or ploughed up or dug up
in the fields or elsewhere. These stone
implements are called by tlie Birlibr
flit'r-iiiri or thunder-stones.

An Elarth-quake is attributed by the
BirhOf to a giant who
The Earth ^nake. bleeps in the bowels of

the earth, turning on

his sides.

The Seasons &c.

499

Tho sMsoni uid
tlifl oudijul
poiatB-

Thc BirhOrs
cardinal points,

The BirhSrs recognise three seasons i
vie.tsitiing din or the summer, Pahang din
or the cold season, and
Jdrgi da or the rainy
season.

recognUe only the four
namely, Singi rakoh ( lit,
the direction iit which the Sun rises) or the
east, Singi Oyfib ( lit, the direction in which
the Sun sets or causes evening ) or the west,
the BS-kandrit ( lit, the direction of the
head i. f., of a corpse } or the north, and
Kafa-jiJtnbar ( ///., the direction of the feet
I. e., of a corpse ) or the south. Usually,
however, the Sanskritlc terms Oitar and
Dakshitt, employed by their Hindu and
Hinduised neighbours, are used by the
Birhb^ for north and south respectively.
Although the BirhOfs have words for
numerals up to ten (see Appendix ) they
generally use the Hindi
numerals. They count by
scores and use the fingers
beginning with the little finger of the left
hand and counting three on each finger

ITtiaieinls and

The BMters.

500

from bottom upwards, ( i. on e^idi of the
three joints of a finfer, leavmg, out the
thus making fifteen, ^xi 4b cn counting the
five fingef-tlps <ind thus coiupletUig % score.

To keep records of articles or coins taken
or paid, the BirhOf makes knots on a string.
The number of things of

Saaorb of same kind taken or

^veti at one time ar« repre¬
sented by knots placed close to one another,
and those of the same kind taken or given
at a different time arc represented by knots
on the same string a little apart from the
former group of knots.

Although the current coin of the land
consists of coins of the British Goverment
mints, barter is more in
Cuirmey- vogue among tlie Birh6re
than buying and selling

for cash.

Wooden cups, knorni as />ailas, of
different sizes, are, when necessary, used
as grain-measures. As for
iron or other weights,
ordinarily the BlrhOr uses

diseases athl iledicniis.

SOI

none. Nor js the weighing beam in conamon
use amongst them.

The two diseases wMch are corntnonly
met with among the people are Fever and
a kind of bladder affection
which they call Rd$ Jfoiirfl
( strangury) and which is
attributed to waildng bareheaded in the sun.
The BirhOf is a good held oatumUst and
utilises various plants and tubers for
mcdlcinai and other purposes. Thus, as a
ccmmqn remedy for Fever he uses pills
made by pounding together the bark of
Sinkn-bQ, the tuber of tin bitsi ks^dity and
the vegetables known as scga*dSidt wOi-f>dti,
nlnudiiton, and bau-ghangrd, A common
remedy for Riis kHitdra or strangury is
a tuber known as bUjis-kohofU which is
pounded and mixed with su^r and eaten.

Tobacco is usually taken in the form of
powder which is mixed with time and
chewed, A few BirhOts
Sf smoking ciga^

&^giou3 O^aor- rettes (phiM) made up of
bits of lobacco-lcsf roUed
up in a sfli-lcaf. Very

SOI The Birhon.

rafdy some old Birhflf may bo found smo¬
king hemp (gAnja.) Rice-bcer is the
favotirito drink of the BirhOrs as of other
aboriginal tribes of Choia Nigpur. Tiie
method of preparation is tlic same
except that the BirhOr uses a bamboo sieve
to strain the liquor. Before drinking home¬
brew, the BirhOf must put down a few drops
on the ground in the name of his ancestor-
spirits or hapfdm. When the BirhOf is out
on a hunting expedition, whenever he wants
to chew tobacco-powder ( w'hich is always
mixed with a little lime ) he must first
drop on the ground a pinch of the powder
in the name of his ancestor-spirits.

ii. Fine Arts.

Such artistic capacity as the Birhdra
possess is expressed more In their music,
songs and dances than in cither represen¬
tative or decorative or symbolic art.

The Birhdfs have three principal varie-

** Vide, TAe Oraent Ifa^pur, pp. I87<6fi.

Sottgs avd Dances,

503

tics of dances known severally as the Ddtig,
jhe Lttgfi, and tlie Miltkdr. In
"^aces ddition to these, ttie Jaghi
section of the tribe appears
to have adopted frotn neighbouring tribes
the fadar (with GaiH ) and the Kanvit
{ with Ettemiil,Jhumar^ and HOnsda} dances.
A few Utlilil groups, too, may now be seen
dancing the JTarani dance. Each of tliesc
dances have their appropriate songs known
respectively as the Djwg siring, the Lngrd
siring and Miitkar siring and so forth.
The characteristic BirhOr dances—^thc Dditg,
tiie and the Mn/kur are really

marriage dances and are danced in accom¬
paniment to marriage songs on occasions
of weddings. A few specimens of DSngand
MiitkOr songs are given below, LitgrC
songs are mostly worded in Hindi.

Dong Siring { Dong song.)

Banang-tahlr-re Mrba ;

Tili-tllangmehail jik dO
TftcrOng-atdngsjichfili iulrba.

S04

TJtc Birhors.

[Translation. J

Under yon. pakn-tree [wasj a pofcnpnu';
Wilkin yon utt-hill [was], a htlrbU
With oui arrow wc have shot the. porcupinet
From afar we have shot the hQrbS,

Ikmg Siring.

Chetiin kUlhirS Mitchi-tfintdA,

Laiar kilUiiri mnndOfin;

Birid uiisi ho niQttdiiriQ,

Lain situiJikO UlOtn biltdb.

[Translation.]

On th’upper end of the road [lies] the
MOchi's drum j

Farther do^iSTi the road [rests] the drummer!
For once, O Drummer, arouse Uiyself,
Mind not the [earth’s] heat aor the sun 1

Dong Siring.

Scirjont pherdrS chando bdpOn eaejkilndbOf
SSndrb tiitudil rttpdidi tfimifk,

TtVtibd diixidOm Hkin ndkdtid.

** Tbii u the iiam a dT ft idaD anintftl «iUi ft eealjl ‘luti.

Plate XXXtl.—Bii'liCf women nt b dance.

SOS

Songs andj)ttnces.
[Translation;]

Up above the sa/-trce dance the children
of tlie' Moon

[Their] SUver nagera** jmd mandal **
of gold,

[Played on with] Copper sticks [how sweet]
at mid-day sound T

Mutkar Siring.

Cara b^ra dakta raa ledaing:

Ddita da pan4‘^-dna.

Pai}4n ban hant€ kuri
Sindar batikiaing.

[Translation.]

Tobacco by the fwer side I sowed,

The tobacco [wtli heat] turned white.

n» thainn of tbo Mom tn tht> Ovn.
Folk-tale No. XV, pp. 486 -T amtM. J

TB ri i Hj>a pf dniiii in
glow of Cbotn KBgpw^

Tht Birltors,

SOS

Th'white-headed old dame’s ^I, 1 seized
And her forehead with vermilion smeared.^®

Mutkar Siring.

N&mdOnUm sOsOnUlttil
HUrOm-w^ do hOsuUttid
HUrOm-tnS gSij&rtrl
BiitdOrbUhiioil m.

[Translation,]

Now thou art dancing [free from care],

Thy old man [at home] lies ill;

But should thy old man [soon] be dead,
Who knows [with whom and where]
thoult go 1

Mutkar Siring.

Ldpu tOpii tiorAring tHhikena.

SonA child IdkfO dO lOfO-lidtOc

** Thtt nfon bo tbn or murriagiQ by

fotciblj umuitiiig vnmiiliDu cm bho fninihGiid of n

(^1 (Vifk p[h iTfi-T ante,)

PltU« XXA'l V.—IJirJjijr itiiucci

A/usica^ IiistruifWtls.

507

BAiidtl sctit tapikanerZ W

JibOn tain enitting,

[Translation.]

In a rickety but I dwell, [and once]

The gold*liued leopard on roe would pounce.
But [my] tail-less dog being by my side,

My life by him was saved.

Besides two kinds ol drums known res¬
pectively as/fluiiJd ( Hindi, Miliidal) and
tamitk ( Hindi, nSg^ra j,
ICuaioal Inotra- the BirhO{'S make and use
manta firio or baroboo flute

with 3 or 5 or 7 holes along its length and
stopped by the fingers, tlie Kcndfii or banjo
with a wooden body and a sounding board
covered with the skin of llic tofhot lizard
and strings played w’itli a bow, and dappers
and ankle-bells (gftilJtgiirsj both made of
brass.

The interval, modulation and rhytJim
of their music, either vocal or instrumental,
appear to resemble those of their conge¬
ners the Mu^idAs very closely.

SOS

The Birhors.

As may be expected, the BirhOp is almost
a stranger to architecture as .an art which
combines with practical
utility a pleasing symmetry
of form—^tlic ebse cor¬
relation of every detail with each other
and the whole. In the eyes of the civilized
man, a BirhOp hut is as much devoid of
beauty of design and execution as of
practical utility. The typical conical hut
( figured in tlie froufispUce ) of the
U(hla BirhOf is a UtUe less than five feet in
height and about nine feet in diameter, and
tlie only opeiimg which serves as tlic doorway
is not more than twenty inches wide at the
bottom t urhere it is iindest) and about
tw'cnty-two inches in height. These huts
are made by sticking in the ground, in
something like circle, a aumber of sd/
saplings or leafy boughs of some big trees,
in a slanting position so that their tops
meet at a point, and then Ifiatchiug over
this WHOoden framework with cither gUttgil
(Bahttnia Samdens) or sill (sborea rifbiista )
leaves and placing other saplings or branches

House-a rckikcture.

509

of twcs over against these leaves for furUier
protection. Such a hut is naturally used
only for sleeping at night and keeping tlio
scanty possessions of a family. These pos¬
sessions consist generally of one or two
pieces of cloth and perhaps a small quantity
of dried vwhHa I feossfo ) kept in a

bamboo basket^ a hunting net and perhaps
some cAoft strings with which to make carry¬
ing nets or hunting-nets, a brass jug( lOtit ),
and usually one or more brass dishes
and cups, one or two mats made of wild
date leaves, and one or two winnowing
baskets ( heier ot silp ), and a small eartlien
jug containing rice {cliatili fOitg) forofTering
to the spirits. Earthen cooking-pots and
walcT'pots arc kept outside the hut, and
cooking, the husking of grains and all
other house-hold work are earned on
in the open. Each hut ( kOtnbO ) is
tenanted only by a man and his wife,
each maiTied son having a separate iflrnbd
of his own, and grown up unmarried
boys sleeping togeUicr in a separate hut
or Jiuls and so also grottTi-up unmamed

SIO

The Birhors.

girls in a scpiurate hut or huts. The
more pretentious hut of the Jaghi

PP- 48-49), with its slightly
raised floor and sloping roof usually thatched
over with leaves or grass and with its nails
made of side-poste filled in with wattle and
mud, are imitations on a smaller scale of
the similar style of huts of their more
civilized neighbours. Midway between tlicse
two styles, the conical huts or sheds of an
Ulhla encampment and the rectangular
huts of a Jaghi settlement, stand the
triangular leaf-huts gcncraly met with in
newly founded jaghi settlements and some¬
times also in old settlements. These
appear to mark the transition between the
conical KCunbil of the 1111x1(1 BirhOr and
the regular rectangular hut of the Jaglii
BirhOr.

As may be expected, there is no attempt
at sculpture or carving on the stones and

wooden pegs that represent
the deities and spirits to
w’hom the BirhOfS make

Sonlptnn ul
0»viag-

offerings or sacrifices. Their only attempt

Painting and Drawitig. 511

at carving that I have come across is on
combs ( sawtlr ) which a few Jaghi BirhOfs
make of sisw or other wood. On these
combs, rude figures of horses or other
animals or birds are occasionally carved by
the men.

Painting is an art practically unknown
to the Birhbf. Tliere is Utile of art in the
smearing of the arms or chests of young
Jtlghis with a white paint made of rice-flour
on the occasion of the Sohoisi festival.
The marks of white ricc-flonr paste
alternating will; marks of a red paste of geru
earth made on the outer
walls and posts of certain
Jaglii BirhOr huts on the
occasion of the DasahJlrS festival are
neither decorative in their purpose nor
indicative of any artistic capacity. These
white marks are said to stand for tlie
white ashes of the deceased progenitors
of the owner of the hut and the red marks
for their blood. As the goddess 'J'hakurarii
or DevT is believed to visit people's huts

512

Tftfi Birhors.

on the Dashart nighty these white and
fed niarks are painted on the w'alls and
posts to infonn the goddess that the
aslies and blood of the deceased parents of
the owner of the hut were duly offered
to her. The diagrams drawn on the
ground with rice-flour &c. on tlie occasions
of certain socio-religious ceremonies (such
as at the Ttlk-Chanrhi ceremony, p. 1S3
ofii^ and the Sssd-Bonga festival, p. 355
ante ) thougli not pictorial or natura-
liatic but merely symbolic and conventional
in their character, are gencraffy vrell
drawn. The people appear to have for¬
gotten tlie exact meaning of these drawings.

til, USEFnirABTS.

The food-quest of the j^hftfs, as we
have seen, takes the forms of hunting wild
animals of the forest and
CoUutieii collei^ng roots, fruits and
honey. Fishing in their
native streams and pools is alst5 occaMOnaily
practised to some Uttle extent Their
methods of hunting have been described

Collection of Food.

513

in a previous chapter. The net is the
chief appliance used by the Birhflf in
Jiunting. For each net two wooden poles
called iGinis are carried by the liunter
and planted on the ground to hold the
net in position. Wooden clubs are used
to kill animals. TUngils or axes are
also carried by the hunters to clear
bushes and other undergro^vths. In ordi¬
nary hunts, bows and arrows are

seldom used, but in the annual disiim
settdrtl O'F territorial hunt, some of the
hunters may be seen carrying bows and
arrows with iron heads. Arrows with

wooden heads are used to kill birds. Pellet
bows arc also used for the same purpose.
The use of bird-ltmc in catching birds is
considered ‘sinful’ by the Birh5p Tiie
most usual metliod of fishing is to put
two parallel embankments extending from
bank to bank of a stream which is naturally
shallow or has been rendered shallow by
diverting its water along a newr channel,
then to bale out Ihc remaining water with a
33

S14

The Birkors,

bamboo basket called dSlOmf and pick up
fislT by the hand from the slime and
mud in the embanked channel A less
frequent method is to dam up a portion of
a stream or tank when it partly dries up in
summer, and sprinkle into it a quantity
of a poisonous powder which is prepared
by pounding up the stems of the siikdri-
pnii plant to which powdered fruit of the
pdrkil plant is sometimes added. The water
is then thoroughly stirred with a long twig
or branch of some tree. Fishing witlr casting
nets or Bshing traps like the hdinm and
the piini, such as are used by their neigh¬
bours tlie Jlftlndds and tlie Ordoiw, is not
practised. The use of tlie fishing-rod, line
and hook is almost equally unknown,
although a few Jaghi BirhOfS have been
occasionally found to try it. No magical
practices or reUginiis observances appear
to be connected ivith fishing among the
BirhO|s.

AltJiough the BirhOys, as a tribe, have
not as yet taken to agriculture, and the
cultivation of rice is practically unknoiSTi

Food and iU Pr^aration. 51S

rwl imd its among them except in a
PtepaTAitioii- sporadic instances

among tlie jiighia, rice is highly esteemed as
food. They generally exchange game,
lioncy or chdp strings for rice, and, whenever
available, take a meal ol rice boiled in wafer,-
boiledlsd^ or edible leaves usually forming
a side dish. Salt and red pepper and some¬
times turmeric are the only condiments they
use. Honey-combs together with the eggs
and larva: in them are eaten writh relish.
These are eaten either raw or after being
scorched in the fire with a s^i leaf
placed above and anotlicr below them.
The Birhfir drinks honey mthout dilu¬
ting it in water, and water is drunk after¬
wards, Food is usually cooked by the
women inside their huts among the Jaghis,
and outside tlieir conical (and sometimes
triangular ) IcaFsheds ( kiiittbSs ) by the
U^hlus. Their hearth or diiiUiil consists
of a shallow roundish hole in the ground
with three low conical projections or horns
above the ground on tlircc sides, a tittle
apart from one anotlicr, over which the

27« Biriiors,

cooking-pot is placed. Fuel-wood is shoved
in through tlic opening on that sJdo over
which there is no projecting horn. Food
lor men and women are cooked together.
Father and sons take their meals before
the mother and girls do. A man will not
cat from the same plate or drink from the
same cup with his wife or other married
woman—not even witir a married daughter:
It is believed that if he does so, tlie spirits
will not accept sacrifices offered by him,
and, as a consequence, some misfortune
is sure to overtake him.

1 have not come across any traditions
among the BirhO^'s regarding the origin of
fire or of the art of coddng.

Piw-makiag. The orthodox method of
making fire is ivitli two
pieces of split bamboo, each about two
feet long. These fire-slicks are called
gHigils, one of wJiich has a slight notch
Cut into it towards the middle of Its
length and Is called the 4ijgil or the
female stick. The eugi stick is placed
on tlw ground with the notch looking

Fire-Making.

S17

up\rai*ds and one end pressed under the
operator's left foot and the far end placed
in a slightly inclined position over a stone
to keep it steady. The other stick which
is called the s^r2 or male s^k is inserted
perpendicularly into the notch on the engd
stick and rapidly twirled round and round
between the hands until the charred dust
produced by this process of drilling lakes
fire. The BirhOr docs not keep fire conti¬
nually burning, but produces it with the
gnlgfl whenever required.

There is no rule as to age, sex or condi¬
tion of persons who may make fire with
the^fgfl. On the day of
Ossemoaial OhMf- the ceremonial purification
or fhatbi ceremony after
the birth of a BirhOf child
(vide pp. 228 etc., ante ) as also on the
occasion of the hoyon or purificatory shaving
ceremony (vide pp. 275-^ ante ) after
a death in the family, all fire in the
house is ceremonially extinguished and
the cinder and ashes in the hearth arc
thrown away, and new fife is lighted.

518

Tht Birhors.

On a day on which any ^cnfices

Jiave to be offered in a BirhSi- family,
no fire nor even firc-sHcka or gtVgas

belonging to the family will be given a^ray
or lent to others, for otherwise some cala¬
mity, such as the death of one of its
members, is sure to visit the family.

The Birhfirs have discovered the pro¬
perties of a variety of wild plants, leaves,
flowers, fruits, tubers and
other products of their

native forests. Some of

these they use for food and others foi
medicinal purposes. The principal tubers
and roots which they boil and eat arc the
pef£ sanga, arrha, dura, kttndri, kShU, and
piskn yams. A few of these are especially
treated to render them innocuous and fit
for food. Among the edible leaves which
are boiled and taken as side-dishes ivitli
boiled rice or other grains arc those of the
jirettg, fiilsli-artt, kainitr, kiiftli,
mfltigS and Among wild fruits com¬

monly eaten raw by the BirbOrs may be
mentioned, keond ( melatto^ylon ), piur

519

Vegetable and other Food.

{Bttcltania laiifolia), Kadam{Anthocephalus
Cadavtba ), bar [ ficus baigaletisis), pipar
(Ficus reiigiosa), fcoff (Zteyphus jujube),
kantbal or the jack-fruit {
integri/olia ), mangoes and figs. Fruits
of the vtohud (bassia tati/olia} and the
sakhua robusfa) besides pumpkin

gourds of the kohufU and /clucJ varieties,
the dSrd or lady's finger, the sfmfii or
beans, are boiled and eaten.

Of animal food, the BirhOt cats almost
anything tliat he can procure, except the
flesh of his totem beast, bird or reptile, and
the flesh o£ tigers, bears, jackals, wild cats,
domestic cats, snakes and frogs, and,—among
birds,—of crows, cuckoos, kites, storks and
vultures. The tortoise is not eaten but
fishes of all available \'aricties are relished
as food. Though reputed to have been
anthropophagous at one time, the Birhors
of our days arc not known to cat human
flesh. Nor have they ever been accused
of offering human sacrifices.

Wc have seen that on the occurrence of
a death in a BirhOr no one b the

S20

Tlie Birhors.

5'Moncnt is pemiitted

alJ^TTOftcai eon- aniniAl meat until

MOtid wltt 7flfldp the Jicym or purificatory
shaving ceremony is performed (vide
p* 265 an if). It is worth noticing that
the violation of this taboo is regarded
as tantamount to eating the flesh of the
deceased person.

The BirhOr will not eat viahitil flowers
or mahnd fruit or upland rice or gflndtiy until
he has offered tlic first

fiMt"^tata^ the season to the

thaspiiite. spirits. Similarly he will
not drink honey from
DhS^vai flowers until a few drops of his
first find of such honey in its season is
offered to tJie spirits.

The domestic utensils of the BirhCfS are
necessarily few in number and simple in
construction. In the manu-
of chdp strings, he
WoAiens. uses a small bamboo sofil
or needle consisting of a
aJiort piece of thin bamboo split at botli

Donti£fk Uknsits, Tools aftd IVeapotis. JlSl

ends, a small peg o! some Jiard wood, such
as sisfi or sal, called chapelt for tightening
the twisted strands of a string, and a ftdndd
or wooden polisher for the stnngs. A knife
called hflsid chltaH is employed for
polishing or plaining the carrying-pole
(bahinga), and a basilil or chisd is used
in making rude wooden caps and bowls.
Mortars fixed in the ground called kd^dis and
pestles called (samilt} are made of wood by
faghi BirhOrs, The Uthlus make wooden
samdts and removable wooden mortars,
called ilkhOrs. The net, as we have seen,
is used in hunting. A BirhBr, while going
out to hunt, carries, besides his net, two
fHirtis or poles to fix the nets and a
Ibettga or club to kill the game. Some
members of the hunting party carry /flngis
or axes to clear bushes etc. from their
path, and one or more men who may
possess a ttiblii or a phafsH axe carry these
to kill and cut up games when required.

Except on the occasion of a disiim-
setidrit or big tribal hunting expedition
in which a few of the younger men

S22

The Birhars,

may sometimes be seen carrying bows and
arrows wth iron heads, such bows and arrows
are seldom carried or used* But BirhOf boys
employ pellet bows with wooden heads 1u
kill birds* Although the use of bird-lime
is avoided as sinful, a simple noose called
fihansi for snaring birds is sometimes used.
It is made with the hair of the cow’s tail
by some Birhdis* Besides hunting nets
{Jhdiij, the Birhd^s make small nets
called /ar-jhSJi for snaring squirrels (c/itdrdj
and similar small animals, and make and
sell strings and ropes of cMp fibres for
different purposes, such as dhduri ropes
for fastening oxen together while threshing
com, kud-4ord or ropes for drawing water
from welts, pdihlidtt or strings for string
beds, jdra ropes for tethering catttc, and
strings for carrying-nets or which are
variously known as char kdttia, fiaitch-
idnia or c/ihm-hilniaf according to the
number of strings used.

Such ornaments and articles of clothing
as the BirhOfs use are all purchased
from outside and not made by themselves.

Drfss, Toilet, and Oniammts. 523

Biftse, Toilat, The ordinary clothing of

ahI Onumon ^ ^

at-homc BirhOf consists solely of a
kaupin or a short narrow strip of cloth
passed bctw'een the legs and attached to
a waist-string called 4^}j4d-dSr made of
chip fibres. From this waist-string a pair
of iron pincers (chimttl} for extracting
thorns is sometimes suspended, as also
a chilttauti or small wooden or metal
receptacle for carrying lime which Is eaten
with powdered tobacco. The average adult
BirhO[, particularly while going to some
village or town, wears a bhUgoQ or kSrea
which is a short narrow strip of cloth,
one end of which is wrapped round
the waist the other end being passed
between tlie legs and tucked in through
the part which serves as the girdle.
Women wear round the waist a tUbUngit,
about One and a half to two yards
long and one and a Ivalf cubit wide.
A portion of this cloth is allowed to pass
dis^onaily over the upper part of tJie body
so as to cover the breasts. Children up to

524

tht BirhcFTs.

about five years of age go naked, and after
tJiat age boys wear either iaupins or hhi-
goas, and girls wear a piece of cloth called
pafli about ^ feet long and one foot wide.
Comparatively well-to-do J&ghi BirhOis,
when going to some village or town,
sometimes wear a short dhdti which
is simply wrapped round the waist
over the knupin or sometimes the bhagod.
They also wear either a gUrncka or naptrin
or a pedikouri or wrapper over the shoulders.
In the winter, men who can aflbrd to do so
wear as a wrapper round the body a/>fcAoari
and women either an unstriped cloth called
thefhi or a striped cloth known as paria.
At ureddings and on festive occasions, people
wear the best clothing they possess, but
neither the bfHyti nor any body else is
required to put on any special dress for
piijtls or other ccrenionial purposes. Nei¬
ther the Nayl nor any other man, whatever
be his portion, is required to wear any sort
of head-dress as a distinctive mark. As a
protection against the sun, a Birhor *iiay
occasionally be seen wearing a cloth wound

Dress, Toilcl, and Ornaitimts, 52S

round the head as a pQgri, althou^ round
his waist he may be wearing only a bhagoiL
Although women wear tlielr liair long, men
crop their hair short in order to avoid
the liair being entangled in bamboo thickets
and other trees and busJies in the jungles.
They employ no barbers, but exchange
the sendees of each other for cutting their
hair or shaving their beards. Moustaches
are worn. The hair on the face is ordt*
narily not luxuriant; but, when it is so, the
moustache is trimmed but tlic beard is not
allowed to grow, being generally shaved
clean. We liave seen that when a baby
is bora in a idttd^K all Hie men in the
whether helon^ng to the same clan or not,
shave their beards by way of ceremonial
puriheatron. As for toilet, i Iiave said, that
the BifhOrs, both men and women, bathe
tn some neighbouring stresun of spring
about once in a week and, if possibScp smear
over the skin some oil made either of
surgujd { GuizotUi Olifeta ) seeds or kdWfJj
() seeds or mustard seeds.
It is only after this weekly bath and on

526

The Birhon,

occasions of some marriage festival and the
like that the women always, and men some¬
times, comb their hair eitlier witJi bamboo
combs or wooden combs« The hair is some¬
times combed in order to get rid of ficc.
The comb is seldom worn as an article
of adornment. Women comb tlieir hair
backwards and sometimes intertwine with
it long braids of false hair ( ndchd )
made of sheep's hair or sometimes of
human hair, and the whole is formed into
a chignon at the back of the head. The
only ornaments generally worn by young
men consist of one iron bracelet ( beril }
on each arm and bead necklaces purchased
from neighbouring markets. Some young
men may also be seen with brass rings in the
lobes of their ears. BirhOr women wear
brass bracelets ( benls ) and anklets ( batikis
and andHs }, bead necklaces and sometimes
metal necklaces, and brass rings for the
fingers and the toea. Nose ornaments and
nosc-sbeks are not in use, but rolled-up strips
of palm leaf or sal leaf and short pieces of
the stem of the bajrit plant are sometimes

Dress, Toilet, o»d Ornmnents. 527

inserted into the car-holc by way of
decoration. Mamed women smear vermi¬
lion on their forehead on festival days,
occasions of w'edding and the like. Feathers
are not worn on the hair as is done by
Oraon girls, but, on festive occa.sions, flowers
are w'om. And they celebrate a form of cere¬
monial friendship between two girls, the
essential ceremony in which consists in
the sticking of dowers into each other's
cars. And here it may be noticed that
the BirhOra have adopted iTirious forms
of ceremonial friendships in vogue among
their abori^nal and non-aboriginal or semi-
aboriginal neighbours. A short account
of tliem is given below.

Ceremonial Friendship.

When two boys or tivo girls perceive a
a strong attachment for each other and
desire to make the bond
permanent, they may enter
' into a fonn of artificial
friendship with the approval of their

S28

The Birhors.

parents. The ceremonies in the PhoSt
(flower) form of friendship consist in
each girl sticking a flower into the other’s
hair in the case of girls, and sticking
floivers above each other’s ears in the case
of boys, clasping each other in a cordial
embrace, and calling each other "my flower'
( phd&l } and swearing eternal friendship.
Mutual feasting and present of clothes to
each other follow eitlier on the same day
or on a subsequent day. The tivo 0ris or
boys wriU no longer call each other by
name but address each other as ‘Flower*
and speak of each other as ‘my Flower',

A similar friendship called 11 ammdilfr is
formed between either two boys or two girls.

Zflxam-Dair ceremonies are the

TYtond^p^ same except that in place
of a flower, a karam
( Adina cardi/aiUi ] leaf is stuck into the
liair in tlic case of girts or inserted above
the ear in the case of boys; and this is
done only on the morning following the
day of the Karam festival.

The form of ceremonial friend-

Cereimmial Friendship. Si9

sliip Is entered into by young men
( and not girls ) amongst llicmselves. The

Jltift Sail ceremonies are the same
SVifludship- as in the Karant dhir
friendship e^scept tliat
a jifiil leaf is worn above the car in place
of a harattt leaf, and this is done on the
morning following the Jifitl Pfijit day, and
a brancli of tJie tree is planted in
the iitij*anj and it is before this/ift'fl branch
that the atUance is ceremonially entered
into.

Somewhat analogous to the /(7/ilrffl/r
friendslilp of boys is the /fhcr1-d(7/i friend-
. . ship of girls. On the

Frift-ndnhip- morning fouo^vmg the
Karam festival, two girls
who desire to enter into this form of friend¬
ship insert ceremonially above each other's
cars a barley shoot grown for tlie pur¬
poses of the fesBval. The mutual feasting
and present of clothes are the same as in
other forms of friendship.

When two girLs bear the same name,

Th£ Birhors.

530

they sometimes enter into the Stipski

name-sake ) or Miiitt form
»JSa iriendship, with the

l^sndahip- same avowal of eternal
friendship, exchange of
presents of clothes and mutual feasting
as in other forms of friendship. After
these girls are married, their husbands
address their wives' sUpQkis or mitins as
their own Sometimes when hvo

boys or men have the same names they
enter into the uiitnn form of friendship
\rith similar ceremonies.

The Sithiiirii form of friendship is entered
into by two married w’omen, one of whom
possesses the same number
Friendship of sons as the other. This
form of friendship is found
only among JSghi BirbOrs and not among
tlie Uthlas and is clearly homowed from
their neighbours the Oriion,s and otliers.
As a matter of fact, this form of friendship
is entered into only in certain years all
over the countryside when a mandate ( none
knov\s whence it proceeds j goes round

SahiitrO Fricttdsbip. 531

after the winter paddy is harvested that
in that year Sahi/ird altiances have to
be contracted. Jaghi BirliOf women enter
into sueJt alliances often witli women of
other tribes or castes In their neighbour¬
hood. The ceremonies observed on this
occasion have been described in my
mono^pli on The Onlom of Chota
Nagpur (pp, 396-402 ); but generally
BirhOr women ustially simplify them and
do not go through all the elaborate proce¬
dure gone tlirougli by Oraon women,
unless one of the contracting parties belongs
to the Oraon tribe or some other caste or
tribe who may be particular about the
details of the ceremonies.

Two forms of ceremonial friendship
which the BirhOrs have clearly borrowed
or rather imitated from
their Hindu or Hindu-
Priimd8id|is i&cd neighbours arc the
Prasad and the GangH-Jal
forms. Both these forms of ceremonial
alliance are entered into only by males
among themselves. In the PrasAd form,

S33

77;t' Birhors.

eacli of the two friends buys some sweets
and exchanges his leaf-cup ftldn^t)
of sweets with that of Uie other, and,
in the presence of assembled friends
and relatives, each of the two friends clasps
the other to the bosom, and distributes the
sweets to all present, saying, “From to-day we
have become 'PrasJlds', Take this and eat."
Mutual exchanges of presents of clothes and
feasting follow. Although the name (mea¬
ning ‘dedicated food') of this form of
friendship has been borroired from their
Hindu neighbours, the Hindu practice of
exchanging and distributing only sweets
offered to some deity has not been adopted,
Sumlarly, in the GaTtgii-Jal form of friend¬
ship, liie two friends drink a little water from
the same 10(0, ( not actual Ganges water as
among the Hindus but water from any
stream) and then embrace i^ch other.
Mutual feasting and exchange of presents of
clothes follow either on the same day or
on a later day.

The fact that in most cases these alliances
are formed by BirliOru with their neighbours

PrasUd and Gangti Jtd Friendship, S23

of other tribes or castes would further
appear to indicate that these forms of
artihcjal relationship Jiave been borrowed
by the BirhOTS from their comparatively
more civilised neiglihours. But these
artihcial relationships are now regarded
by the BirliOr as real and sacred as actual
blood'relationships. Two such 'friends’ arc
not permitted to take each otlier’s name.
Each observes all ceremonial poUntions
and taboos of tlie other’s family at birth,
deatli and marriage.

Games and Amusements.

The Bir]:5T cannot be said to have any
games of movement intended to develop and
exercise physical powers;
Physical and indeed they require

none. From a very early
Swtomlnff,' age, BirhOf children bc-

Tluowi&g, c. necessity, inured

to .ill sorts of hardship and fatigue,

I iiave known one Birh^r fan^dy fioing
practically without food for a day and a

S34

The Birhors.

Iialf, Birhors become accustomed early
to iivalking long distances. In walking,
tlie hands, unless carrying some loads,
hang loosely to and fro and are not
placed akiinbo, and the feet go outwards
ratJier than inwards, and the legs appear
bent outwards, A healthy adult BirhOr can
easily walk from 30 to 40 miles a day and
carry a load of about 2 maunds { 160 Tbs.),
The BirhOr climbs high trces'by catching
hold of the trunk. When the straiglit,
high trunk is too thick to be clasped round
with the arms, he ties a stone at one end
of a long rope and throw’s that end of the
rope over an upper branch, holding the
other end of the rope witli his hands
so that the weiglited end may come
down, and when it does so, he holds tJie
rope by both the ends, and swings himself
up the tree with the help of the rope.

Very few BirhOfs can swim. Those who
do, swim with their arms thrown forward
in a swinging circular stroke while the body
turns towards the side awray from the
stroke. Breast-strokes and swimming on

Games of Dexterity and Etnulaticv. 53S

the back are not practised. The BirhOf
has a good aitn in throwing sticks and
stones at animals or fruits.

Uthlu BirhOr boys indulge in practically
no athletic games, but tlie Jaghis have
^ ^ adopted a few from their
aad and other neigh-

EmulaQon. hours. The priocipal
games of Jflghi BirhOr
boys arc the Khiti and the Chhur. In the
khaii game,, in whicJi a number of boys
take part, the player propels a small flat
piece of wood by holding a short stick
upright behind it and striking against tliis
sharply with a third stick.

In the Clihiir, the players divide them¬
selves into two parties of equal number.
Parallel lines are scratched on the ground
Members of one party guard the lines,
tliosc of the other seek to enter the
furthest portion within the lines which
is called the ‘salt-house’ { ndti^haril).
Wlien the latter party succeed in reaching
the 'salt-house* ivitlioul being touched

The Birfwrs.

S36

by a member of the opposite party
guarding tijo lines, the parties change places.

In the Dilttda Eni wliich is played by
young boys, a boy's eyes are blind-folded
and his playmates slap him one after anotlicr.
VVlieti he can recognise a boy slapping
him, his eyes are uncovered, and the boy
vvho has just slapped him and lias been
recognised, takes Ins place and is blind¬
folded in his turn.

In the Til-gitfi game, seven small holes are
made on the ground in eacJi of two parallel
lines* In these lioles two opposing players
sluft 6ve small stones about

In the Ukd-eiie, one boy hides himself
and others try to find him out

Cliildren play with a
CWliroa’s Tejs. rough-hewm wooden top
which tliey spin on its
point by drawing a string round its
stem. Birfifip children also sometimes amuse
themselves by winding a chdfi string round
a species of longisb fruit known as
and whirling it round and round by
holding one end of tJie string witli the

oj Imilaiioti. i37

hands. Wliilc Ihe fruit is thus rapidly
whirled round, a peculiar rattling sound
is produced.

Small Eirh5f children sometimes amuse
themselves by playing at building make-
believe huts with sand
or dust. This Is called
drU-bSi-bU'ent house-
make-make-play), BirhOr children, botli
JagJii and Ulltlu, play at hunting with
miniature hunting-nets in imitalion of their
elders. BirhOr children begin to practise
dancing from the age of four or five years.

Of dramatic games, Jaghi BirhOr boys
Imve adopted the Jack-fruit game or the
Kikniara-Kuniltra enS from tl;e
An account of this game has been given
in my monograph on the Maij4^
is not reproduced licre.

Intellectual Amuseffiente.

1 have already given a briirf account of
the intellectual efforts of the BirhOfs in tlie

The Mtutda* “»<1 ^ArtV Cuvnirft* [ 19131 PP« t93-i.

Tht Birhots.

shape of myths, songs and folk-stories.
Their intellectual efforts also take the
sliape of riddles which the younger
people learn from their elders and with
which the younger folk amuse iJicmsclvcs
after tlieir evening meals. As for proverbs,
I have come across a very few genuine
BirhOr ones altliough some MuiidaH and
Hindi proverbs are current
Pwvttbft. amongst them. With
reference to a man who
criticises the quality of Uie food offered
to him, the BirhSf applies the proverb,
dg/xfl/ bakU pethi tifa-knnac, hang rmgech-
rtdo madklitH hQ ktie bagi&e dd tnilfi /ifl
nunH^nea (f. e., To a well-fed stork tlie
pQiJn fish tastes bitter; otherwise—when
it is hungry—it unll not omit [to eat]
even the madkmn or bnssia itiii/olid fruit
and will drink even da-mdri or gruel). To
an unworthy person presuming to place
himself on an equal footing with one above
liiin in social position, the BirhOr applies
the indelicate proverb —Afire jejs bdf
bdnud tiad bdndh mil tin ttdmkdndc”, (t-

Riddles.

S39

[He] has no Iiair on his private parts, [yet]

seeks friendship with the [hairy} bear 1

A few specimens of Birhdr riddles or

Lm>n ka'ani are given
BiUlss . ,

below :—

Question birko tdldrl, tnidd url

toUMnOe. Mar liltnfifcmja.

[A bullock is tethered in the
middle of a dense jungle.
Well, name it}

Answer ;— Lum&m. [The silk-cocoon.}
Q,— Haiu~n hasa-iiritnskanoko, haatig
gehj-ka?i6ks. Mar hVamem.

[They take out earth fti the villap,
scratch out a hollow. Well, name it}
A.— Muid-ko. [Ants,]

Q._ AiamSia birko tahirS barchka bindA-
kamr Mar, latfimcnt.

[A spear is planted in the middle
of a dense forest Well, name It.]
A— Kuril lidta, [The stem (kitril) of a
bamboo.}

Q,_ AfijyiJn hOpOn dO anga-ertO gitmS-

kangc tabikatiae, Mar^ iCdamenL
[Aboy tliat strikes itsdf (against

TH Birlors.

S4Q

some baid substance) every tnof-
niag. Well, name it]

A.— Med piphni.

[The eyelid (which on being
opened in the morning repeatedly
rises and falls like a clotli which
the washerman washes by striking
it repeatedly against some hard
substance,)}

Q,— MiHn hopsn da angO^nchi pdhUbe-
rage tabiianie. Mar Hitamemja.
[A boy that begins rolling over
tlic ground in the rooming: Well,
name it]

A.—[The broom (witli which
IltrhOr women—mostly Jaghis—
sweep the floor and the Ungan
in the morning). j

Q.— Mian lUnri-ri do bakliio dingSkanH,
Mart iatiimffmj'at

[Storks have collected on a plot
of high ground. Well, name it.]

Aii— Joitra aiacafca ohcjrei atakamt.

Riddles. S41

[Make that is being fried on a
broken earthen'pot; that is it.]
Dubme Denikd ing ddril diju-kdnil-
ing. Luttltneni.

[“You get dowra, O Demid, (while)

I get up the tree."]

Piska. [The Pislm creeper (which

is supposed to address its yam or
tuber as *Demka’ and ask it to he
under the ground while the creeper
itself climbs up a tree ).]

CHAPTER XlII.

CONCLCSION.

I have now Finis bed my rough sketch of
the life and culture of one of the most
backward of ChotA Nagpur tribes. Cut off
in their jungle haunts from either exten¬
sive or intimate contact with superior
cultures, the BirhO^ cxliibit a culture
which is, as may be expected, relatively
very simple. These denizens of the forests
liavc necessarily had to depend mostly
on their natural environment for the satis¬
faction of their needs. And thus they
have worked out their economic adjustment
by adopting the lumtingof wild animals,—
particularly monkeys and other smalt
animals,—the gathering of wild roots,
fruits and honey, and the manufacture
of wild vegetable Fibres into strings.

Conclusion,

543

ropes and nets, as their main economic
pursuits. Their choice of this work
in chdp fibres as their main industry
cannoti however, be accounted far solely
as a reaction to tlieir present environment;
the hereditary tendencies to response,
whether innate or acquired in tJ:e course
of their past history, may also have some¬
thing to do with tills preference. Having
once solved their economic problem by
adopting monkey-hunting and rope-making
as tlieir main occupation, they have
stuck to these with considerable conser-
vativencss. And thus even though some
BirhOf families now and then settle
down in one place and take to some sort
of agriculture, tJiey very rarely stick to it
for any length of time, but are apt, on
the slightest disturbance, to rcx'ert to
their old life of nomad hunters and
gatlicrers.

As is but natural under such conditions,
their social organization, too, is almost as
simple as tlieir economic system. Although
the BirhOfs, in common with the oUier

544

The Birhors.

M/itiJa-spcaking tribes, recognize the larger
exogamous patrilineal totemic group of the
clan as the controlling factor in the regu¬
lation of marriage and kinship, the amailer
economic group of the ^rida or huntiog
camp is indeed, at the present day, the
mo re effective social unit, possessing, as
it does, a greater degree of solidarity born
of constant association in the food-
quest, participation in common joys and
sorrows, joint sacrifices to the same local
and departmental spirits and intiniate
association and emotional rapport on ever-
recurring ceremonial and festive occasions.

Although membership of a titudti group
was originally purely voluntary, it soon
came to be determined more or less by
birth, the son generally attaching himself
to the same a^ his father, unless, as
in some cases, he joined, on his marriage,
the fOtidii of his wife's people. Some¬
times, again, a non-BirhOr is adopted as
a member of the tribe and of the particular
fnijda to which he attaches himself by
union with one of its females. From tlic

CoiitUisi^.

S4S

existini' practice of li«: fcgitimattzatioii of
ttie children of a BirbOr male by a woman
of another tribe, and that of the occasional
adoption, aa a member of the tribe, of a
non-BirJiOr who may ha%*e fallen in love
with a BirhOf female and the consequent
biclusion of non-BirhOr tribal or caste
names ( such as Bhat, Bhuiya, GOar, Matiali,
Modi, Mussal } among BirhOr clan names,
it is evident that the tribe represents, to
some small degree, a fusion of peoples
and, to a much smaller degree, of cultures-
tndecd, the ideas, customs and culture of
these adopted members of the tribe have,
on the whole, been, more or less, of the
same type and level as tliat of the BirhOfs,
and, in physical type, too, these new-comers
do not differ much from that of the BirhOrs;
and thus such intermixture has produceil
no appreciable effect on BirliOi' physical
type nor any serious complexity in BirhOf
culture; and BirhOf physical t)"pc, like
BirhOr culture, has remained dominant.
Still when we find a Birh&fs daughters
3S

546

The Birhors.

sons inheriting the property of their
mother's soilless father, or a sister’s son
inheriting the property of a deceased
BirhOr who has left no children or brother's
children, we may not unreasonably suspect
lire influence of racial miscegenation and
cultural contact upon a people among
whom succesion is ordinarily patrilineal.
BirhOc myths and folk-tales, dances and
music, games and amusements, ceremonial
friendships and a few other customs also
bear some evidence of cultural contact
As in social so also in economic culture,
the contact of cultures and peoples
has not been altogether without its effect
which is particularly marked among the
Jaglii section of the tribe.

As for the clan organisation, it has no
longer any economic or political function
in BirhOf society. Besides its social func¬
tion of regulating marriage, the clan,
Jiowevcr, has, as we have seen, one impor¬
tant religious function to tills day. This
is the annual sacrifice to the dan spirit—
Biiril-bOngtl or OrU-b^nj^ii —in which men

Condnsiott.

547

of the same clan at each with their

faces turned in the direction of their tradi¬
tional cradle, offer sacrifices to the presiding
spirit of the hill-cradle which is believed to
possess a mystic connection with their
totem, and is represented at the sacrifice by
some symbol, such as a bit ol the skin,
horn, or claw of a bird or beast totem,
the cow-bell (iharki) in the case of the
GOflr (cowherd) totem and so forth. On such
an occasion men of the same clan,
belonging to /dnddj close to each other,
may aomelimesbe seen coming together and
joining in the sacrificial feast. In these
sacrifices, tine totem emblem of the clan,
as vve have seen in a previous chapter,
serves as tlie visible representation of the
clatj as also of the clan god. In fact,
the clan, the clan totem, the clan god and
the hill which is reputed to be the cradle of
the clan, are not only associated together
in timught and ritual but are intuitively
identified witii one .mother as analogous
aspects of tile same supemornial power
or force which forms the basis of their

548

Tilt: Birliors.

world-view—of their ‘science* and religion.
If, ns appears probable, the clan organU
zation is liistorically a later development
than the small local food groups or hH.fddv
of the coUeeting stage, it may be reasonably
inferred that the case of BirhOf society
of the present day is one of degene¬
ration from a more organized stage
of clan life in the past to their present
life of mere nomadic groups of hunters and
gatherers. This is in consonance nith the
tradition still current among the tribe that
it originated out of an incestuous union nf
a Miinda brotlier with his sister. The
erring couple, it is said, were escommuni’
cated by their tribe-fellows and liad to
U'ander about in jungles, subsisting on
Jungle roots, fruits and wild honey. They
Iiappened to cut down certain creepers and
found that they yielded strong fibres wliich
could be twisted into serviceable strings and
ropes; and this led them to adopt work
in chdp fibres as their principal industry.
Besides g.ithering vegetable food, they
used to kill small animals such as rats,

Conclusion.

S49

Imres, porcupines and tl:c like for food.
Later, when tlie Hindu epic hero 1^
Chandra gave the Birhi^rs ‘permission’ to
do so (vide p. 427 ante), they look to
catching and eating monkeys. In those
days of tradition, so my infontiant told
me, the numerical strength of the tribe
was smaller than at present, but it has since
increased through occasional intermarriage
with men and women of other tribes.
Whcllier this account of tlic increase in their
population since the days of Ram Chandra be
wclbfounded or not, there can be no doubt,
liowcvcr, that a process of depopulation
has now set in. Whatever be the cause
of the recent decrease in the impulation o
Uie Biriidfs, whetlicr^it be the increasing
economic stress due, among other tilings,
to Uic rapid deforestation of the country,
or whether the decreasing zest in life due
to the gradual elimination of tlicirold habits

thfina Augnrtt, ItAuuki duanue

Tfu Birliors.

:ioO

and customs, or other circumstances too, be
responsible for it, the fact that a process
of depopulation is now at work in the
tribe, is amply borne out by statistics.
The census figures shou' that the BirhOf
population in Chota Nagpur has dwindled
from 2,340 in 1911 to 1610 In 1921,

To return to their social organization:
As a result of the clan organization, tire
relationship system of the tribe is what
is known as classilicatory, though not of tlic
thorough'going type common in Polynesia
and called the Hawaiian system. There is
now no trace in BirhOr society of any form
of sexual communism out of w'hich the
class ificatory system is supposed to have
originated. Marriage or sexual union
within Lire clan does, indeed, sometimes
take place, but the evils apprehended
from it may be averted by the propUi*
ation of the clan god and spirits

and by a fine which is utilised for a feast
by the hltjdti community.

There is hardly any differentiation of
social function betu'cen cither the different

Conclmion.

SSI

clans or the different The only

socio-rdigious and magical functions which
arc allotted to particular individuals in
a (iitjifii arc those of the NHyH or fStidil
priest and the Mttti or sorcerer. But
neilJicr the Nityiis nor the MUtis can be
said to form a privileged class. Besides
tJie natural family group and the socio¬
economic group of tlic tOiidii and tlic
kinship group of the chin, BirhOf society
knows no functional or occupational
grouping nor any political, religious or
other grouping, Voluntar>’ groupings such
as secret societies and clubs do not
appear to esisL The unmarried young
men of a kVji4^ who sleep together in
the same hut or dormitory (giUj-Urtl)
do not form an organized social group
or association with definite social regu¬
lations as among their neighbours the
Oraons. And the same is true of the
group of unmarried girls who sleep togc-
thcr in one hut

As for BirhOr tribal organization, there is
liardly anything to speak of. The different

S5Z The Birhars.

taitdii groups and clan-groups that make up
tlie tribe now hang loosely together, the
only bond between them consisting in the
tradition of common origin and the posses¬
sion of a common name, common language,
common occupation, and, to sonic extent,
common customs and institutions.

Tile tribe, as a whole, has, as we have
seen, little to do, at the present day, with
the regulation of the social life of tlie
different /diidd groups and clan groups that
it comprises. There is no periodical social
gathering or religious festiml in which Ihc
members of tire tribe or even of a particular
fiitidii act as one unit. And naturally
certain differences in customs, rites and
ceremonial obseri'ances arc now found to
exist in different clans and local groups.

As for the reiigioiui (including in tliat
term wJiat is sometimes called magico-
relfgious ) system of the BirhOrs, it has its
basis, as wre have seem, in a haunting sense
of the presence of innumerable powers and
forces behind the visible world. And it Is
In this conception of a multiplicity of

Coudasiov.

5S3

powers and forces that may he found one
jjreat difierence between these early forms
of religion and the more advanced forms in
which tlie Power behind tlic universe is
conceived of as One though with many
manifestations. Tiic BirhOf's dim concept
lion of a Supreme God is represented
by a vague Creator named Sing-bonga or
the Sun-God who, however, does not
take any active part in tlie direction of
the universe and in the affairs of men.
It is the innumerable mysterious powers
and forces, from the most powerful
personal spirits to vaguest unpcrsonal
mystic forces of the nature of the Melanesian
'mana' with which BirhOf faltli fills tlic
environment, that are regarded as the
real agents or causes of the numemus
phenomena in nature and Ivappcnlngs in
life wliich the tribal intelligence cannot
otlienvise account for. These ‘sacred
powers and forces of BirhOf faitli, cither
existing as independent entities or inhering
in some natural or artificial objects or even
in such immaterial things as a name or a

S54

The Birhors.

number, are believed to be the only active
sources of all bad luck and tlie potential
sources of good luck to the indi^ndual and
the community. It is these that now and
again causc failure in his food^quest, cause
sickness and death and other troubles, and
olhenfi'ise baffle him in his endeavours to
make life woriJi living.

These invisible powers and forces are
to the Birhor not mere figments of tlic
imagination but real and living entities IJiat
appeared to ancient BlrhCf ‘seers' in ^vid
visions, and still sometimes appear to
present'day medicine-men and other

mediums in trances and visions and to tlic
average BirhOf in dreams. This realiza¬
tion of the presence of supernatural

powers and energies in various places
and physical features, natural and arti¬
ficial objects, and even In immaterial
things, naturally led the people to apro-
ach tliem with fear and caution and treat
them as a class 'apart' or 'sacred'. And
this sense of 'sacredness’ is of ttic essence
of the rcUgiou.s attitude. The most

ConchisioiL

SSS

importanil; problem of life that Ific
tribal mind had to solve was how to deal
witli these sacred pow'ere and forces so as
to ensure tribal and indlridual wxIUbeinj;
and avoid misfortune,—to secure for the
community and the individual tlie fulfil¬
ment of their desires and comparative
freedom from fears and anxieties. Tlic
solution that Birhr>f society,^ like oilier
societies on the same plane of culture, has
found is to seek conciliation and commu¬
nion with the more definite and potent
personal pow'ers and to deal with tJic more
indefinite and impersonal potvers by w^y
of control expulsion or avoidance. Appro¬
priate rites and ceremonies and spells to
compass these ends were determined upon
by the tribal mind, or, rather, were revealed
to their andent 'seers', as on occasions
tliey are still reve.aled to some latter-tlay
‘seers' as well.

Human appetites and human desires
came to be naturally projected into the
spirit-world. The BirhOr's life, whether
individual or corporate, is, as wc liavc

536

flu Birhars,

seen, in tlic main a strivini; for the
satisfaction of physical needs. His ^ods
and spirits, too, are naturally conceived of
by the average BirliOf and 'visualized' by
BiriiOr ‘seers' as anxious, above all things,
for animal food and a regular supply of it
When that is assured to any spirit by a
family or a /dirdrl, the spirit may be expec¬
ted to be favourably disposed towards it.
The occurrence of sickness or otlver mis¬
fortune in a family or tHijdti is regarded as
a notice of demand issued by some spirit
or otlicr for animal sacrifice. The notice
is interpreted by the mtlli or spirit-doctor
to wliom the hungry spirit reveals itself
and names ttic coveted sacrifices. If it be
a stray spirit not connected witli the /dudJ,
it is generally lured away by tlie niUti,
with the bait of some sacrifice, to some
distance from the /ilnofd and there Uic
desired sacrifice is offered to bribe it off,
and none but tlic tiiSti may cat the sacrificial
meat; but in the case of sacrifices to clan
spirits and iHiidii spirits, the people of the

Coachtsictf.

557

clan or the as the case may be,

may all partake of the meat.

BirhOr customs regarding tlie eating of
the sacrificial meat would appear to point
to three successive stages through which
tlie doctrine and ritual of sacrifice may have
passed- From the practice of offering by
way of conciliation a part of the saerificial
animal or fowl to the gods or spirits and the
sacrificers consuming the rest of the meat,
appears to have naturally developed the
practice of man joining with the gods or
spirits in the consumption of tlic sacrificial
meat and thereby cemeniitig the bonds of
fellowship between the human commtmity
and the spirit-world. And a still closer
union came to be effected between the
sacrificer and his god by the former sacu-
mentallv eating the head of the sacrificed
animal or fowl which, as we lave secti. is
identified, in the BirhOr's mind, with the
god himself. And such union with the
god, though tempoiaiy, came natunUly to be
believed to add to the spiritual strength or
soul-stuff of nun. Thus, in this Power-

55S

TIk Birhors,

cult of the BLrhOrs, there has gradually
come to be added to the original attitude
of unmitigated fear and anxiety an element
of joyous but cautious fellowship and
assurance periodically renewed.

APPENDIX I.

Birhor Vocabulary,

The Birhors, as I have said ***, speak a
language now classed among the Auslric
linguistic family which is said to c^end
from India and Burma throiiglx Indonesia
and Melanesia to Polynesia. The
languages to which the BirhOr speech belongs
are classed along with KhAsT, Mon-Khmer,
Wa, Palaung, Nicobarese and the aboriginal
languages of Malacca under the Austro-
Asiatic sub-family of this great Austric
family, Although the stock of words of
the Birhors is necessarily scantier than
those of their neighbours and congeners
the Siititiih and the H&s,

wlio stand on a relatively higher level of
culture, the vocabulary of tlic BirhOrs,
like those of other branches of the same

560

The Birhors.

group, is fairly rich in words for different
varieties or different parts of some parti¬
cular animal, plant or fruit or other
concrete object that they know, but
extremely poor iti words to denote either
collective or abstract ideas. Thus, altliough
the BirhOfs iiave no general word fur
tliL- genus of rodent mam ma ls known to
iloologists as /mis, they have terms for its
different varieties, e. g. a small mouse is
called a chfijlJ, a middle-sized mouse a
kabil or a large rat hhflsh, and a

musk-rat Cluludi, As in otlier dialects of
the Mniidii group, tlie same BirhOf word
may be used as a noun, an adjective, a v'^erb
or even an adverb, often with little variation.
Kxcept in a very few instances, traceable
to outside induence, in which a feminine
tenmnatinn is used, BirliOfs do not distin¬
guish natural gender by any modiheatiou of
the noun itself; but tliis is done, in a
few instances, by using different words, but,
more often, by adding words meaning
'male' and 'female^ Suffixes -tiir and -hi}
respectively are employed to denote the

Appet^ix /, $6t

dual and the pJural numbers; such ease-
suffixes (-he, -ra) as are employed

appear to Iiave been borrowed from
Hindi or Bengalis 1 sliall not enter into
details of the graimnalical structure of tiie
language which resembles that of the other
languages of the group in its main

features, I shall conclude this introduction
to this BirhOf vocabulary by citing only a
few instances to illustmtc how faithfully
the language of the people reflects their
economic, social and mental life*

BirhOf society knows no distinction
belnveen Mch’ and 'poor', for all BirIiO|^
are almost equally poor. So when they
now see this distinction among their neigh¬
bours and require to express it they liave
to borrow the terms Pliantn’ ( rich 1 and
■garTb' ( poor) which are in use among
their Hindi-spc;tking and Bengali-spoking
neighbours. Again, in a society, where all
arc equal, honorific pronouns are neces¬
sarily unknown and every Birhor
addresses every other man as dw, 'thou',
J6

The Birhor^.

5oZ

In Uieir strenuous life, every BirLur has to
work and requires to be strong and cour*
ageous and he has no leisure to be idle
:utd no reason to be weak or feeble, and
consequently ttie BiriiOr has no terms of his
own to express the ideas of ‘weiikness’ and
'weak’, 'idleness' and 'idle'* And so when
he sees such distinctions among his neigh¬
bours he borrows { with phonetic
modifications ) the words with which Lbeir
Hindu or Hindtiised neighbours express
lliese ideas, namely, ilnrhtil for 'weak',
hfdjiiiiiti for 'strong', for 'courageous',

and kuHii for ‘idle’. As a keen hunter, the
Birhof has a name for every distinct part
of the body J of an amnial, vix, its

head (bOhd}^ the top of the skull (ddfOt/t
hiltoj, forehead {hair ( J/flfr ), eye¬
brow fmi^tUhbiiU), eye ftiii'd), nose (tnU},
mouth-hole {ilitgDh}^ mouth ( JitUctril ), chin
(dilcM)^ cheek ear (/n/nr ), neck

j''/it»yiJ^,the back of the neck (tilikil), the face
just below the cars tooll) (diltd-)

jaw upper lip (Ificho), low^r lip

f/il/fjl, chin ( d^ho }, chin-hair ().

S63

Appends; f.

tooth (dilM), throat (ndrti) shoulder f/ariuf),
breasts (tO{t tauii), hand (ti), upper arm
(silpii}, fingfir (iingiir)^ n^iil frmiia)t i^hest
(kandftraiti or karaiH), navel (hiikti) sto¬
mach f laid ), the large intestines ( d&nil
p^ihii), the small intestines ( tiatiM
pdlM), the convolutions of the iotestinijs
(dngdagia papid), tl>e male organ (koril),
tlic testicles (biti), the buttocks (diKturil),
palm of llic hand { tiAhhalkit), back of
the hand excluding the fingers (ntt^iir
lalftba A lap ( kmm), thumb (chundnl
or dhabfi atignr). Htlle finger
( kam amr A big toe ( bakarca dbm
angar), little toe (bakaren bani angnr/,
bone (jiing)t hip-bone (chflki-jtWg), Ibtgh
( biiin A arm pint (/arkai jiing ), elbow-
joint (ilkkii), front of the foot including
the toes, ( baka ), leg excluding the foot
(narh^ra), upper part of the foot excluding
Uie toes (snpti), sole of the foot
tldullka), knee-joint (wflkarih the thigh-bone
(dhap£-jang), heel (irgO, «des of the body
(khamy bile-bag (ihimh lungs
llcsh am), bloodand skin (ftarhi}.

S64

Tbfi Bi rJiors.

ft is interesting to note tliat Uie word for
tlesh {jilA ) is also employed to signify 'deer’,
as its flesh is to the BirhOr the most delect¬
able and covcteil animal food. As for the
monkey (), the catching of which
forms a fjivtnirite ucupalton of the
they have different words for the animal
in different stages and conditions of its life.
Tims, the male monkey is called bhukOr, the
female monkey Niitk^r, a pregnant mon¬
key fiiiflttyivnl, a remalc monkey carrying
a child on its back h§inoiti^t and so fortlt.

Aithougli in tiic languages of some of
the comparatively advanced branches of
the Munds. race the first ten nume¬
rals arc their own, the Birhbrs have words
only for tiie first four numerals { miilt
pcii, and puniti ), For the rest he uses the
Hindi or Bengali term.s ( patidty c It hat, ssf,
etc. ). ft is interesting to note that the
Birhdr has only two terms to distinguish
colours, namely hante ( black ) and pitJjdi
( white ). For Ted’ he uses the Bengali
word rSngn, wfiereas 'yellow' is described
as sasdng baran t turnicric-colour ), He

Appendix /.

565

can hardly distinguish between 'green' ami
'blue' and has naturally no term of his
own for these colours, but uses the Hindi
word harinr {green ) for both. He has
no name, indigciioivs or borrowed, for
'brown'. It is also noticeable that lo
express the abstract conception of colour,
the BirliOf borrows the Bengali word ‘baran'.

Instances might be multiplied to any
extent to show that the languages of lower
culture, such as that of the BirhOfs, are defi*
cient in llie expression of abstract concep¬
tions and class names; and so his words
mostly expre.ss concrete ideas. Thus, to
give one example, the Birhnr has no
term for ‘food’ In general or for 'corn* but
has names for the different articles of food
that he takes, as, for example, jfi/rt for animal
llesh and particularly the flesh of the deer, /fl
for fruit, htiri\msi for honey, utmilam for the
iiiohitu, shft for fowl, hoion^ for bread, and
so forth. The Bi rhr>r has no general words for
‘time’ or ‘place*, for whicli be uses the Bengali
or Hindi words and /flrgd, but he

lias words for Uiffereni periods or points of

566

The Hirtiors.

time ( mQha, last year; titItot}t, next year;
tilling, to-day; gflpil, to-morrow, nidcli night,
sittgt, day; and so forlJi ), aod for clidercnt
places that he knows, Agalrf, althougli the
BirhO[R do not appear to possess a general
term for cutting, they employ the terra
ma 'to cut at a stroke’, and ged 'to
cut slowly’. Although a strictly general
term for tlte idea of cutting does not
exist, the werrd ‘/ml’ is, however, employed
for the purpose except when the process of
cutting is markedly slow.

In the subjoined vocabulary I have
marked the words that are common to
the BirhOf and the Mupdari languages;
and among these the Sanskrit-knowing
reader will not fail to notice tlie large
proportion of undoubted and probable
Sanskrit or Sanskritic uturds. The probale
ethnic significance of this I have discussed
in an article in the Journal of the Bihar anti
Orissa Research Society { 1923, Vol. IX, pp.
276^293).

BIEHOR VOCABULARY.

iV, Bow(cf. M.
iifieju You two, M.
abn»g. To any
part of the body,
achmn. To marvel,
wonder { cf M,
thnda.)

(ichfi. To order; to
employ*

aebun To move
round ; crooked.
ilchfnl. To sneeze (cf,
M. iichu*(l .)

(Irf. To loose*
iidcr. To take inside.
M.

tidit. To micturate;
urine (M.D/ft/).
tlgit. To take away. M.
tlji. Grand-mother. M.
iliom. To feed. M.
aia. They. M,

We two (I and
thou), M,

Qlaafi. Tongue, M*
tlkfm. To overflow
(said of water),
sis. We. M,
dlufg. We two (I and
he) M,
ilin. Thou, M,

Hijibrn. Hog-plum.
Hilda. To boil
aitdhrii. Blind. H,

* In tliH liit, ihv IfftUi- M. aiuidt for Mtindan, nmt
when it iippeatiftltMo nftor dis mwiing 'rf • wonl it
UidlcfttOT Umt the asmuj woid h uiod in Iho saiuff
in th<! Miimlwi IftoBU-p-. Similarly, A al»nd" for
Dimti nml A for Bon»pi1i-

•56S

The Birhcn.

HugJ, Morning ( ci.
M. ang .}

iingsb. MouOi-hoIe.
ilngur. Finger { M.
DilrO .)

dvjed. To dry up,
iVifhdnra. Pregnant
monkey.

*T>t(o^ Then, M, cnfc, i
You (more tlian
two )^. M.

Opcgtir. OuarreL ( M.
Kpegir.}
iipir. To Hy.
flnl/tf). Yoke.
iiril. Vegetable; to set
free, M.

drga. To descend,* to
bring down. M. i
arid. To gaze, stare, M.
(ird. And. ( M. jjrtj.)
iirii. Urine, to urinate,
i M. Duki; Dado.)
(isiiL To bring up, to
support; to tame.

To fry, it.

Otar. To bum. M.
Ofed. To spread. ( M,
iiryni .)

ilteti. To hear (cf, M.

ilyuJJj,)

Otiiig. To graze, M.
atkir. To fly [with

soiiielliing3 1

(iHngir ).
titoffi. Side,
iltfi. To be tarried
away [as, by waves]

OtOr. To winnow
[com],

Am. To lake. M.
iitirL Not yet. M,
tlyO. His own. M.
Oytib. Evening. M.

bagi. Leave. (M. BOgCf

hiigi.}

bahfi. Flower. M,
bnhiti. Younger sister,
(M BuitiL ) .
hahiro. Deaf. H,
baka. The front por¬
tion of the foot f in*
eluding the Iocs.)
bokhonr. To talk; to
describe ( M. Bn-
ktlnri )

hoklh\j. Tree bark. M,

A^f>€tuiix I,

569

Heron, stork. '
M. Bi\kQ.
baimHn, Strong

bi)hi, Mud; lufiiilic M,
ball Ao/'flH. Infant;
child. (M. Bi\l( hi^n.)
hamrc. Brahman. M.
biiiih, Bir -,

bdrhhl. The bear
(M.

biitiiim. Fiddle [M.

[ cf. ^ris-
krlt, Bhntiti .)
hitiiOHi. To make. (M,
Biiiy

ftdrtfir. Both. (M- Bn-
raml. )

bananutUu Both sides;
heice [M.

bi\ntiQ. Embankment.
M. ( H. Hmdh. J
biinn. Not Band.']
biiouo. .Short. H.
bapli\> Marriage, mar*
riage-procession. (M.
Bala. I

ba/)/a, To scratch;
witch; ringworm. (M.
Bab/4.]

btlr, thi/v. Two. M. |

barn, Large. (H, BsrS;
B. Bfird,)

ftaratflrf. Equally. M.
bar/iiffiiii/. A ca^en-
ter, (M., Ba/'di. ]
barf/. itusUt/i tree
{.wlflecbini Injaga} M.
bSsi3/i/> bdsi /mitidt.
Breakfast.

b/i/i-bnftfb/lr. Hils-
band's elder brother.
M.

baySn Hope, M.
bftla. To deceive, tn
tell ties; false ; a
clieat. M.

bgM Bad.! M. E/kau)

bt'/rr. Uncooked; raw.
[ M. -flrM .)
hiTHghar, Brin Jill ( M.
Bmgar .)

Bent, crookerL
(M. IhfJha.]
brrs. A bracelet, M.
ht'rm. To spoil M.

bis. Good;

bet. Handle {of some
instrument!. M.
Daiiiini\ tlSnfi),

57 ^?

Tlii‘ liirhoTS.

hew To spll; spittJe.

Kl,

bliudiil. The b:it, { M.
Binidiir'f H. BMar.)
bfuiit. To tiiKct. M,
idlings, Separatu I M.
JiingB.)

fdi-i/sr. Inside. (
Bifar \ H. and B.
i/hils. A Sargu rat
it/ifisri Mosrjuiio. ( It
B Sitffl ,)

Day*Libotircr.M>
W/il’, To inabc a hole '
( M, Btt'n, I
IdrriTi. Bark of dog
' M. Btt*n )

ijf. To be satisfied with.

I M. Bi, Bill, j/
hid. To plant. M.
ii/fu/r. Seedlings [of
paddy &c.l t ^t
Bidii w)

hiju/ Bad.

To ripen, ripe. M.,
i/ing. Snake. M.
h/uti. To beseech, M,
hir. Jungle. M.
hirSi. To tempt, M.
hirsuiiin. Wild boar
M.

Urrd. To rise, to get
up. M,

bisfi. Boison ( M. B/si)
bisi-jSiTg, Spine M.
bs/tS. HeacL [ M. Bj )
boiS. Foolish, stupid.

I M, Ddiida.}
bdii}. Younger bro¬
ther. M-

To enter. M
Spirit; a god.
M.

bsr. A plaited straw-
receptacle for grains
M,

bsrA Fear.
barsiad. lungs. (M.

iorS^r. 'rimid ; to
fear. M.

bsni. Fire-pan. ( M.
Baitrsi)

hosA To mb, anoint
{ M. GOsQ. I
hoior. To frighten,
f M, Botoitg. J
bngi, bsgiii. Good. M.

hnks. NavelI. M.Brt/j )

imi. To be drunk, M,
hiihi. Thigh. M.
baifing. Salt. M.

Appeitdix /.

571

hnrii. Hill. M, Tlic
original signili cation
would appear to have
been *god'*
bustle Straw. M.

ebabs. To finish. M,
cbaltap. To yawn ( M,
cluib .}

chandtt. The moon;
month. M.

chOpL To wasli up. M.
cltapuo. Bellows, M.
chapiid. Husk; to
luisk. M.

chart. A reed for
sewing up leaves.
cbdta. To tear; rend.
M.

cbstani. Umbrella. M.
chSuli. Rice, M.
rftovd; ri>. A kind of
Insect-pest which
destroys paddy crops.
( M. chUyd. ]
f/n', cheji. Why, f M.

f/««,)

chcnfc. Bird. M.

Flat, {.M.

chiipOd.)

ch^nis. Envy, foolish,
c/ufan. Upon, above.
M,

cheta^. To advise. M.
chL What. M.
cbidri. Arrow-head.
cbiteka. How*. M.
ebidhan. Wliat .sort
of. (M. cbikktiti ,)
cbvniDSti^, How
mucli.

chipa. To squeeze.

( M. chi pit ,)
chipfid. Handful. M,
fAj'ra. To split. ( M.
chcra. )

cA/rga. To awake.
chir^. To be awake;)
cunning. (M. etdrgat J
Partridge. M.
cAaiJ. A frog, M.
ebapiiti. To sunk. (M.
Chipoti; jembed. '
ebtik^. A small earthen
;ug. f M. and H. '
cltffi, A calf. hf.
cltRittH. To kiss. { M.
Cfm, H. & B. fbmnd .)
cA)T/«aw. Waving a
light ccrcmomilly. M.
cbiijjdai To point
with the fingers.

572

Tht Birhors.

chfindi. A niusk-nit.
M,

chandnl Sttgitr, Fore*
6ngCT next to tlie
thumb.

chfiril. To leap.
chfltvrii. Buttocks^.

rfrt. Hive. ( M, duliH ,)
dH', Water. M.
dah. Hatch, covering
M.

dnh-rnar. To repair.
M.

ihTi, dhlL Elder sister.
M. _ ‘

dal. To beat, to strike.
M.

dfdi. Plilse. M.
dcttjids. A stick. M.
dai}gr*i. Bullock. (M.

dangrfi. Bachelor. M.
d&pOnu To meet with
one another. I M. Da-

)

ditri. To be able. M.
d^ytt. Tree.
diiffi. Tooth. M.

d^/ri}iiK Sickle. M.
df\ Climb. M.
dyiarrg. Come along,
(M. Dr/n )

Back. Nf,
dcugfT. Assist.
dftjwrS. Magician;

witch-doctor. M,
dtfrp, df/ift'. To have
sexual intercourse.
M.

d/iSnga, Tall. B.
dMrigrm. Spinister,
t,M, B/nJngti )
dhsui. Drum. M.
d/iarf/. Earth. M._
d/iit'ffuci, Tlie king-
crow. M.
d/ijmufi. Proud.
did/ig. Young.
d/diif!/. Rice-dcaning
pedal. M.

dhiikii. Knee-joint
f il. nuikuri .)
dhmn. Resin. (it.
Udaii. )

d/j'flffl. Dtist. M.
iiijit. To walk.
diJUiki. Daily,

Virgin. M,

Appendix 1. S73

dipU, fiilpiL To earn?
upon thi: head, i M.
DtlpiL)

diplL Tmie*M.
dirt. Stout:, M.
dicing. Horn, M,
dshde. To placu, to
keep. ( Do ')

4oL Lower purton of
an arrow-shaft.
dOldng. Go,
doi^ii. I,«t us go.
dGlcfi^ fipSslL Fast; to
fast. M.

dutlr. Door. {M. Dn-
rS; H. & B. Du^r ]
dubhS. Brass-cup, ^ M.
and H. ]

ditbrO- Weak. ( H<
duhiii.)

dudram. To doscc.
dSkii. Pain, sorrow. M.
didSc, Beloved, (M,
Dular .)

dundii bing. Qliopra
snake, M.

diiriing. Song; to siirg,
M,

dnris. Plaited thread.

’ M.

Duriib. To sit. (M.

mb .)

duj-Hin ; JaiiMfiim, To
be drowsy, to sleep,
M.

(futSDi, Match-maker,

c.' Lac, M,
egec. To abuse, M,
Alone, (il,

Mr.'

eMa\ To tremble. M.
em. To give,
em ntfff. To return
[a ttnng.] M.

B». To thresh.
ende. Thereabouts.
endi'Pj. Day after to¬
morrow. M.

(Jliojii? endre. two

^vs after to-mor-
■» ^

row.:

ene . To dance. ( M.
.Silswn. ^

flTif/a »icfiDi7i. She-goat,

lit.

rnga sildom. Marc M.
engS sim. Hen, M.
enreo. Even, M.

S74 The Birhors,

Quarrel, to
quarrel with each
otJicr. ( M, E^ger^
Eperang .)

erct. Adult lemalc. M.
efil. Different. M,
efe. Beginning. M.
efe. To tease, if,

ycjn'flr. To hoax;
cheat ; a cheat; a
liar, M.

2>hdkini. Lungs. (M-
and H.)

gadet Crowd, 34.
gadi, Dumtj.
gOdL By the side of.

(H. Ocna. ]
gadie. A ttnier weed.
(M.

galang. To w'cave. It.
gilm. To agree; to
romise ; to speak.
M. gabao, 1
^ . To rain, 31.

ganris. Low stool. M.

gipa. To-morrow. M.
garS. River; stream.
gdn. A monkey, M.
gati. Friend, compa¬
nion. M.

gft*ui. To make a sign.
M.

ged. To remove the
entrails; to cut
tmeat]. H,
gegS, To cut.
giija. Quarrelsome.
gile. Ear of com, M.
ger. To bite. ( M.
MhIL)

gsrSfig. To groan. M,
get. To cut. ( M. Hitfl )
ghmi. Oilpress. (M.
Ghandif H. & B.
pAanfJ) ^

gidfiL Vulture, [it.

Gh'tL Oidi }
giL To cuff; fist. M.
gip. To throw down.
M.

gitxj. To lie down, to
steep; sleep. M.
gitiL Sand. M.
go' To carry. M.
gfyj. To pluck a fruit.
M.

57 S

Appendix i.

To dic.

The grain
fankum mnltiburit-
cmn, Jfl.

gonong. Price, cost.

gop. Herd of cattle;

( M. & B. H.); place i
where cattle is licr- I
ded.

gbtCt, Round.
gbfa. Tp scratch.

SnaiL ( M.

j/iirw. Field-rat. 51.
g^rgudii, .\rm-pit. (5T.'
Gbt€, I

g^ehu. Beard and ,
moustache. M,
g»l Whistle. { 51.
Gbte, ]

gtttn. To winnow. 51,
giirij. Dung of cattle.

hsga. Brother, M.
hagakimin. Younger

brother's wife. 51.
hake. An a^te. M,

haku. ^'ish. M.
hfilang. To pick up.
/iflmifli Heavy. M.
haiiga. A Urge <litch.

(M. J/anoi.)

7<unAsr. Mother-in-
law, M.

ksnped. To shut. ( M,
Hanted .)

hsupi, mnkri- iloa-
qiiito. M,

hm fing. Part; share,
51.

hapt. To be silent. 51,
htira. To grow*, 51.
Afiram, Old man. M.
7iflram-Acret. The
wood-pecker.
harba. The Indian
scaly ant-eater. M.
Itat'hati, Bitter. (M.
Ilsrad ,)

haram. To collect. 5t.
harol). To be cured.M.
h4rtn. Leather; hide.

Clay, earth. 51.
ham. MI; illness. M.
hMur. Setting of the

Sun or the Moon. M.
hatang. Brain. M.

The Birhoi's.

S7ii

JiAtlif. Ann-pil. IM,

h&fingt kattafing.

To share- to divide,
7i^om, Father's sister,

il,

A/iyri. Lust; desire. M.
Aefe. To carry [e. g.
a child] astride at
the waist, t M, He-
hep, ]

hefe^ Chaff, M.
hend. Adult male, M,
Aefcm. Sweet. M.
Aj^ar. To separate
[Trom a mass or i
herd.] M. ■

hijn. To come. M,
htlang. Hate (it.

hitang .) I

hili. Elder brother's
wife. AI.

AtrcAi. To spriolde, M.j
hisir, Necklace, M,
hofto. To call.
hfiha. Hang up. if. j
hffla. Yc.sterday. M,
Aqf). Son. Af, I

Aomumr/, A female i
monkey with a youog
one at its back.

Ji$pSn, Small,

Aor, Alan. ( if. Hdro )

(Sanhdi Hop .)

Adrd. Road. M.

Aormo. Body, if ■
horomsL Honey (M.

HuT^umauktL ]

hoyo. Wind. M.

Itogo itiidhi. Storm.
hogo. To shave. M.
hegtifi, Shavnug.
hiicha. To brc^. (M.
cAoA, )

AfirK. Paddy ( M.
Baba ]

iam. To weep, M.
tcA«, it*. To pincli.

(Al. lehiL )
icho-hakfi Prawn. H.
ifIL To lake away'; to
carry.

idii. Perhaps.
idiin. Who knows t
Don't know-. (it.
Idnrd )

tAim. Bile-bag, liver.

( M. )

11. Stools. B.

Appendix /,

li; Tindt^ To e^St; one¬
self; stools.

-ili Beer made from
rice or other grains.
M.

Imis, Then ( U. Im-
tang, imts. )

Ina rnente. Therefore,
for that. ( M, Ens .
rmnte. ) '

IpiL Star. ^t. '

2pif~piung, hhaff-Joqni!
Glow vvonUt fire-fly-
M.

It. To reap ,

Ijrgi Heel (M. I»dia,)
Tn\ To quench fM.
Efenj.y

Iri'id. Husband’s
younger hrotiier tM.
Iriul^ora .)
JHid-kupi. Husband’s
younger sister { M.

/ifin. To cook. M.
i(*. To pinch ; pin-
ching.

Jtil, Fat; fatty. M,

/ftn To rub; shampoo.

■

JiL Perhaps. ( M.
ZterdRff.)

t/ffAai, Any one ( M,
Jetai.)

Jahanii'^ } Any-
Jsiian jt^n J thi ng.

( M. JetdniL )
Jaha-l^a* Of some
sort f M, Jdikd. ]
JcnToril, Son’s son ;
daught^er’s son. M.
Jaikupi. Son’s daugh¬
ter j daughter's
daughter. M,

To fly about;
hover about. M.
Jsruw. Alwaj'S. M,
Janf-hnni. Nigbt-
in^e. ( M, CAr/jo.)
Jang, Bone ; seed. M.
Jan^id, Bamboo lish-
iog trap. M-
Jamm, Tliorn. M,
Jaoa. Twins. ( M.

Jupid, To dose the
eyes. I M. Jnpid, i

S78 TJte Birlion.

Jargi. Rainv season,

( M. Jargi; Jargisa,]
Jaritnu To ripen.

( M. Jarom, J
Jerka. Joined (as two
fingers or two fruits )
[M, Jirki ]

Jeter. To dry in the
sun ( M. Je^er )
Jhali. Net. (M,
Jalani, }

Jh^-a. Scorch, roast
(M. RL)

Jhumpa. Cluster,)
bunch, (M. JhumpiL )
Jhnf. A bower; bush.
(_M. JhAmhUf.)

■/t. To smell ( active.)
Jijilat., To slip by the
foot. fM, Jilad;
chitp^ ]

JJ- Porcupine, (il.
JH’i,}

Jiling^ Long. M.

J i/ii. Flesh, iM.) Deer.
JiTied. To live ( Jid j
Juab. To warm one-
self in the fire. M.

To take rest
Jo. Fruit; to bear
fruit. M.

Jo-$. To sweep, M.
Joba. Cheek. ( M.
Jeo. )

Johar. To salute. M,
Jbjo. Tamarind; sour.
M.

Joiha. Equal, (M.
Jokd.)

Jem. To eat. M.
Jom-tr. Riglit hand,
M.

Jonra. Mal^e (M, */on-
har; Jotidra .)
dbno. Broom. &I.
Jonorso. Joint. (M.
JoTwfe .)

Jdfi. Equal. (M. •/«P-
H. Jon. B.

Jo fa. I

Joru. To leak. M.

Jot. To vwpe off. t M.
Jad. ;■

Jot a. Equal. M.

Jated. To loucli. ( H.

JuliJ.)

Jdter. To dry in the
sun. ( M. Jedey. J
Jid. To kindle,

JUmri. G luttouous.

( M, Jumhfi )

Jiipl. Creeper.

S79

AppctidiA' I.

Jumpaftl, Too old to
walk_ properly. ( M,
Jdrot-p6f3 .)

Kahn, Crow. {M.
Kau, ^

Kalom. Ensuing year.
M.

Kami. To do, work.
M.

Aswm, Female La¬
bourer. ( M. Kamp .)
Kiipi, Battle-axe. M.
Kafi}a, The handle of
a plough. M.

A'ffft’. Oil-cake. M.
A’fljfAfl. Add. (M,
Heben.)

Ka*soTfK Cotton. M.
Kata. Foot, leg. M,
Kartal. C>'mba], M.
Kaia im-a. Sole of
the foot. M.

Kafa. Finger. M.
Khidi. Empty,

E-hm-ii. To expecto¬
rate.

Kkarcha. Money;
food, j M.) r H. & B.
kharvha, kharneh^

expense.]

A/tarpa. Wooden
slippers. (M. kctrpS.
Khatkhafa. Beef-
bird. M.

Kfiis. Anger. M.
Kichri. Cloth. M.

Evening star.
ATmin. Son's wife ;
younger brother’s
uife, M.

luring. To buy. M.
Koe. To ask.

Koer. Pluni (M. IM*
dari ,)

Kokar. Owl.

Korhi Idle.

KotUy. Jute plant.
Kaypng. To take [a
child] on the Ijip. M.
Ktid To carry fc. g.
a child] on the back.
M,

Kfihnra. Frog. (M,

A'KAasf.)

K«ld. Tiger. Af*

A«/i. To ask. M-
KHm. A big earthen
vessel.

KumhufH, Thief; to
steal. M,

580

The Birbors,

Kumkal, hlmbhAr, A
kind of fly which
makes small burrows
into walls.

Kihnii. Dream. M.

hunduram. Chest (M.
A'm/vFwi. )

fCbpnl. Relation ;
ftuest. M.

A'ufa. To roU up. M.

Awfoii Wages. M,

KutL Woman.

Kfiri htm. Girl,

A'iJfam. To grind j
liamnier.

LilchS. Upper lip. M. -

Lodi. Load. M.

ZtTAa. Increase, ex*
cccd. M.

-Lahi, Stomach, bellv.
M.

Lai hitSH. Stomach¬
ache. M.

Landu Laugh. M,

Lutigpi. Lame.

Lap, Handful. M,

LiifnindiL To inter¬
change smiles or
laughs.

L&prai, To fight is'ith
one another. M.

Lapud. Chicken pox.
M.

Lai, Cave ( M. Lata,
tnpSnga, )

Isfab. To clip, \ U.
Lafab lanatab. Scis¬
sors ; to clip.)

Latdf. Below. M.

A moutlifuL

Lgbe. Soft. M.

Leka. Like, M.

Ld,nid. To sec. (M.
Nd,)

Lel-hefU. To look
about ' M. N'eldiefa,
hptH-bepx )

Lei t’uar. To look

behind. J M. A’e^a-
r\iar ,)

Aenddd. Earth worm.
M.

LesKT, To ^.harpen. M.

L^. To put out the
tongue. M.

Limbir. Cloud, ( M.

, Ai?m7, )

Lingi, To flow'. M,

lApi, The sparrow, M.

Lo\ To burn. M.

COti. Fig. M.

A/fpendix I. s$f

Lohot, To be wet;
Wei ( M. Liim )
Lola. Hot ; M.
Lopod. Wet. { M, Xo-

Losfid. Mud. M,
■^^^yong. Low-lyjnff
nce-ficld. M.

Ludam. A kind of tree.
M.

Xfifnfifl, wrist.
XSw-lm. Silk-worm.
M.

A ladle. M.
fjttpn. Husk of rice.
M.

A kind

of sinnll ant. M.

Ms. Day. M.

Ma’s. To cut. M,

Msd. Bamboo, M,
Madtsfti, Bassia lati-
folia. M.

Mahs. Last year. M.
Mshdnder. Day be¬
fore yesterday.

Mails Dirty, dtii.
Ma-miP. Well I ( M.
Mar,)

Manchi. Chair. M.
Idanda. Cough, if.
Matidi. Rice. M.
Msnhal, Flat bean.
■; Ma/au. \

Mstii. Iffuslard seed.
M.

Maparang. Big. M.
Mapa-tHp&m. To
fight \eith cutting
weapons. M,
Marang. Big; Large.
M.

Marrfii, Red pepper,
Mnrmar: dhoofi mffr-
mar. Scorpion ( M.

Msri. Old [tilings]
M.

Map~mapite. Slow'ly,
M.

Mar^Sf mSiidM. A
earthen platform for
ceremonial purposes,
M.

Marsat. Light; sun-
lighl M,

MsijQjn. Blood. M.
Mcang, Day after to¬
morrow. (M. Miang ,)
Meatig efidrej. Two
days after tomorrow.

582 The Birhon.

Med. Eye. M.
Med-ian^ini. Eye¬
brow. M,

Men. To say, M. '
Menti. To that place
( M, EnU .)

JferrJin, Goat. M. ^

Mia. One. (M. Miad,

Mif.i, I

Mid-jang. Vety little,
t M. ItiJ torang)
Mina, Mini. That. (1?.
Eli, Entl .)

Miiidi, Sheep. M.
Mira, Parrot. U.
Mind. OtiL'e. M, ;

Misiiamsit, Some- '
times, M,

Misafe, Together. M.

Sister. M.

Mii. To swell. M,
MOchit, Face. M.

,1 1 oloirg, E' orehead.
M.

Mfi. N' ORc. {M. Mahii,
Mil-bha. Nostril. { M.

Jifni, Ant, M,
Mahriing. Tired, sati¬
ated, .inxiqus. M.
Mfikari, Knee. M.

Mat a. New moon. M.
Milni, oiti. He. [ M.
Ivi. )

Manil. Beginning. M.
il/flnlt/. Paras tree. M.
MAruiii, A species of
deer. M.

M a till I'hiVifa. Central
post of a hut.

Ntlchn, iiariil Hiicha.

False hair. M,

Niihel Plough. M.
Najam. Wizand. M.
N^ilki', Hair comb. M.
A^albil, Wages. ( M.
mil a. ]

Eatti, To search. (itJi

To find.

Nanha, Thin, {M.

EiinA )

Naradurit, Weat. M.
Eiiri. Pulse. M,
jVdnf, Creeper. M.
Narka, To wash the
head with mud, M.
Nasi-sit ri. Falsely.
AW, Id, To see. M.
Nfl-tirang. 1 o discri¬
minate. M,

Apfiendix /.

NcitdA, Ntrtl. Ap'
pointed time.

Night, M.

Niiiir. White ant, M.
NigkA. Axle. M.

Ni'i. Open, ( M, Nij,
nig .)

KimUiS. Now, (M.

Nads, na. ]

Nimin, mminang. So
much M,

Ninka. So { M, iiwiw.)
Nir. To run; to flee,
it.

Niral. Good-looking;

beautiful, {M. Niral^
Nir, ttipir. To run. M.
Ninra. Mongoose. M.
NSe. TMs. { M, Ni. )
iVoiiio. Here. ( M,
NirS .) I

Nsts. On this side.
Hither. [M. NeiS.“\
Nft. To drink. M.
Naate. From here.

{M. NtatL )

Naba. Dark; dark¬
ness. M.

Nuadeka, Like this.

(M. NeUka. ]

5Bi

NRhU. Breast of a
woman; milk. ' AI.)
to suckle, to give a
a drink.

Nitra, To clo¬
thes. M,

NntRm. Name. M.

Okoa. Whose. M.
QMS. Who(M,)

I absolute.)

Om. To give. M,
Om&n. To grow,
spring up. M .
oils. Other. ( M. Efa .)
Ong. To blow (as with
the moutli.) M.
OptSng. Copulate;
sesual intercourse.

( M. Bfre, )

Or. To drag. M.

Of it. House. M.

OfeJ. To break,
to tear. M.

OrStig. To blow' a

pipe.

out. To open. M.
Ofang. To lly. M,

OU. Eartli, land3L

TIi£ Birhors.

SS^

Oldug. To follow* M.

Pachhtilti, To repent.
M.

Pudit, To kick ( M,
Phadti.)

Piighd. Rope. ( M. &
HI

Pdkhfi, adfira. Loan
for a sl:iOTt term. M.
PiiiHft, A goad. { M.
Painril ,)

PiVtdu. Wliife, M,
Pilftdfi^bitig, Cobra.
M,

Piltirki, Dove. ( M,
Piihlni ^)

Piird, To split ( U.
Plhlrtf ,)

PttrkOnrt Bed stead ;
string-bed. M.
Piltiifn. To cross;
across. H,

Pitsrn. Smithy, M.
Pii{fl\ To lay cross¬
wise; to tlirow ano¬
ther doi\ti by inscr-
tins one's leg into
Ifiat otlier's legs, il, '|

PanJ. Full,

PcUJ, Pete l/iifM, Chaff,
( M. Pete baba, \
Piull, PloughsWe.

(M. Pa hat, J
PhntjdtL To rebound.

(M. Pffifrfff.)
PJuirich, Neat, clean,

( M, Pimrchi ,)
Pht'riii. Clear.

Phiri. Shield. M,
PliOnkiJ, A hole, to
open oat, (M. P6n-
hii.)

PiaJ, Onion. (M,

Ptajd ,)

Pkhfui. To follow.
[U,Picha,)

Pilahi, Spleen (M.

P/7/fi. J

Pitirngi- Veranda., M'
Piiti\ BovV'String.
Pipiiii, Eye-lashes.

Pitid, To spin cotton.
M.

Paklmr. Tank. (M.
Puklmri. \

Pi^itdi}. Dirty water.

( M, Bar a. j
Pdfoifi, A bundle (of

$gs

Appettdlv 1.

grains &c.) packed

in atraw, M,

Pnguri, Pocket-
money. M.

Pfm4L White. H.
Pura. Much. M.
PnrH. Lca/-cup. M.
Fdsh Cat M,

Ptitriii, Puri, Proth,
( M, *Pit{riii.')

Ril’, To cry; to call.
M,

RAbQug. Cold. M,
Rsbiiug din. Cold
season.

Racha, Courtyard,
open space before a
house. M,

Rtikab, To climb up.
M.

RsuiU. Kail. M.
RtVurd, Phaseolus.
M.

RattgU. Red.

Rdnu, Medicine. M.
Rapd. To bum. M,
Riipnd, To break a
liollow thing (c. g. a
pot) M.

Rdsda. To be morose;
to be beside oneself*
RUtiiHg. Frost M.
RttitiHl. Light; easy.
M.

Rear. Cold. M.

Rdied. Root. (M,
Red.)

Ret. To snatch, to rob,
M.

RekHe. To do. t M.
Rika .)

RcHge. Hunger; hun¬
gry, poor. M.

Rid. To grind in a
stone. M.

Rim, To lift M.

Ringa. Famine. M.
Debt M.

Rimil. Cloud. M.
Riinil-tdfi, Thunder.
M.

Ririiig. To forget M.
R&h^r. Dry* M,

Roko. A fly. M.

Rfi, To beat a drum.
M.

Raa. Fever. M.

Rfiar. Return. M.
Ruknd. Chisel: M. &
H.)

RRnii. To tremble. M.

586

The Birticrs.

Rilrutig. To poke or
give a thrust, as with
a stick.

Sfl. Side, directiou.M:
Silb, Sei^c, hold. M.
SfidOni,. Horse. JI.
Sugri, Cart M, ,

Sahan. Fuel. M.
Sohct Breath. (M.

SaiL Wildbuffyo.M.
Sahnni, Leaf. M,

A'<3Ai. Namesake. M.
Sakon, Conch; trum¬
pet.

StikOm, Bangle. M,
Stildiigi. High. M.
Sfl/wd. Gratis; empty,
M.

Sniiidg^. Empty; wth
empty stomach. M.
SatnbaS. To put in;
arrange, { M. Sdn/w.)
SUmbir. To lie on the
back; lie with face
upward. M.

Sdwrdo, I Prepare: prc-
Saprtio Iparahon.

Sdmtiym. Gold. M.
Sam whit t All; whole.
[M.

Sanam. All,

S3nitit}g, Wish, desire,
( M. Snndng, J
StJngeu. Put forth
new' leaves; new
leaves. M. ^

Sangil. To gaze, look
up. M,

^nght. Distance, far.
M.

Saiir Bull. M.
5fJwr^-siMJ. Cock.
SSiiri hkit&Cr^ A triale
monkey.

Siisang-tehii. Yellow;
litr. like turmeric.
M.

SSpluh Clean.

Arrow-head. M.
SflrjOin. Shorea to-
buski tree. M.
Sa'fmaySttpni. Roof,

(M, 5ar»if.)

5dr(. To know. M.
S&rie, True. (M. SartL)
Sdfi, Sound, voice. U.
Sasilti. Burial place.
(M.,B., H., S.)

S87

Appendix /.

Turmeric. M.'
StiseL To persecitle.

(11. Sosrt/f.')

Sauri. Thatching'
grass,

Sehel, Sehd-kufi, A
hollow embedded in
the floor for Iiusklng
rice. II,

S«/. To go. II,

Sengd, Fire. M.

Scr. To melt. M.
Sered. To pound. ( M.

Siled, to mix.)

Seta, Dog, M.

Seta', Morning. H.
S/6/7. Sweet; tasty. M,
Sikhii, To leam ( M.

li fiii .)

Sikhdo, To teach. (M.
Itn .)

Sikid, To scratch. M.
Sii*r/. Chain. { M,
Sinkiri ,)

Sint. Fowl. M,
Sim-hdn, Chicken. M.
Sindiir. Vermilion, i
f M. Sinditri, i
Sing-bongd, {Lit.,
Siin god) God. M,
Singi. Day, the Sun.

Singi husCtr, The
West, sun'Set. M.
S%f/,rf7ijh,|The east;
ro, (Su n-ri sc.

SipQd. To blow' the
bellows, M.

Siring. Song, to sing,
t M. Unravg. j
Sirum. Sky. M,

Sisir, Dew, (M. iSIsir*

f/i!5, )

SUhed. Wax. i M.
pSi7/Hid.)

Siiung. Heat (parti¬
cularly of the Sun.)
M.

Sitting din. Summer.
Sin, Si, Plough. M.

Sj. Smell, to smell
i passive.) M,
jSb/ Straight. M.
Sjndrd. Pus. M.

S6ttg, To measure.

Sopaa. To place in
charge. M.

To close doors
with a bar; door-bar
M.

Sordi, To whip; to
beat,

S8S

The Birhon,

SdsO. Marking nut. M.
Sdtil. Cudgek M.
Subtle Under ( parti¬
cularly, under a tree.)
M.

Sfihfid. A spring. M.
Siikfi. Happy, IiappL-
ness. M.

SiikiiL Smoke. ( M.

SrtHifld,)

Sakdri, Pig. M.

Sfilij. Mucus of the
nose; snot

Oil. M,

Sfiniifil. Younger bro¬
ther. M.

Chignon. M.
Upper arm. M.
Sdrsil^ To holt a door.
M.

Surtii. To turn on the
side when lying
down, M.

Sfistlr, To ser\''e. M.
Stisi, Opportunity, M.
Siisdth Dance. M,
Sttiiim, Thread. JI.
Sufi, Right mind ; |
sane; come to senses,
after intoxication or
a fainting ht, M.

Sued,. To mix up.
(M. Said, To mix
up.)

Tdbcti. Flat rice. M.
Tuber, To stoop, to
lie with face down¬
ward. M.

TsenSm, After; be¬
hind f M. Tiiiont. ]
Tdeudm-sd, Back-side
(M, Tdiotit-sd .)
Tdlier, Cucumber.

( M. yVi/Vnlr. )

Tlihi, To remain. ( M.
Tdiu .)

Tdhl, Rupees. M.
Xdkili. To spin. M.
Tm, Middle. M,
Tdla-ttidil. Midnight.
M.

Tdt,\4<i, Settlement;
encampment.
Ta/ttiild, A small axe,
(M.

Tdrau. Shoulder, M
Tilrsb, The piar
f Buchanm iatifolia }
tree. M,

Appendix /.

S89

Tetsin^. ATlemoon, Af-l
Tasi. To spread. M,
Taihi, Earthed lamp.
M.

Tiiylid. Place. M.
Tekilti. To bar, M,

To receive in
the hand. M.

Tcndu, Rice-grue]-

‘ivr.

'fi'ttg. To weave. If. ,
Tcnjiing. Elder sister's
husband. M.

TettfH, A small spot¬
ted species of leopard
M.

Ted. To fry. M.

TereJ, Third day after
tomorrow.
refilitg. Thirst. M.
T?fet Moonlight (M.
TefeJ,)

Right. M.

Thekrej, To bask in
the sun. ( M, Jbeker.) ,
Thct. Thunder-bolt ,
Tb(\r. To understand,
know. M.

JbQr. Beak, M.
JbCikurL To collide
M.

Thduibo. To aim (e. g.
an arrow) ]

n. Hand. M,

Tthing. To-day, (M.
Tisingt ising ,)

Ti-jhnmpa. Back of
the hand.

Tt}n. Wornit insect,
M.

'fikhi. Midday. M.

Tilae. Kettle. (M.
ChelO. \ (

TfV/r. Ebony. ' M.

Tirll)

Tiinting. A kind of
oil-seed; linseed, M.

Tifijla, To stretch the
legs. ( M- ThtjffL )
Drop. M,

Tir. Arrow’-slaff.

Tirio. Flute t M,
ifn/A )

Tirttb. EJow down the
head, M,

Ti-taikb^ Palm of the
hand.

Ti-ih/ipri, Clapping
the hands. M.

Ti)’. To liit M.

Toil. Milk. M.

'Job!, Then. M.

590

The Birhon.

ToUqL Spnin. ( M.
T6t\.

Tol. To bind, M.
Tottong. Small jungle.
M.

TdndSiti, Knot, { M,
Tsndttg^ J

Tore'^ Ashes. (M.

TareJ. )

To/a. Snapping [as, of
a rope,]

TJ/f. Arrow-shaft with
a wooden knob at i
one end. M,

Till/, To uproot; pull
up, AT, I

'foghrii. To walk
slowly,

TfJi, To shoot an
arrow. M.

Tnilti. A stringed ins¬
trument. M.

Tniyii, JackaL if.
Tiiko. A pestle, AI,
TiVa, To weigh, M.
'funtbai. To glean. M.
Tarn bid. To fall down
with face downwards
AT.

Tomda. A smalt drum

{AI. DmitlHg . )

ffliidiittg. To creep.
M.

Txindii. £nd, M.
Tiiph, To steep in
water. M.

Collision.

TtJr. Squirrel, M.
Tifrum. ( Wooden)
pillar, M.

TAtkifti. Cold. M.
TiiiHl’il, Back of the
neck. M.

llh. Hair, M,

Uchiiig. To poke with
the elbow.

Ud. To Swallow'; M.
Uda, To inform, tell.

{ At. 67il«h. )

IfdAr, To push ( M.
idir, ifitsg. )
f7iiAfIr. To retnember.
Uivn, To fall. M.

V^O. Klbow. AI.

Ukft. To hide: secret.
M,

Ukrwu. To kneel, < AI.
I irhni .}

S91

AppetJdix L

Ulii. To vomit. M.
UlL Mango- M,

Vm, To bathe. M.
UttibuL Shade. M.
Undu. Narrow hole.
U7igvd. To stoop,
bend. M.

Unu Yonder. (M.

hdni)

UpliiQ. To Boat, M.
Uf. To dig.

Ur gum. Tepid, M.

Urher. To entice away j
A species of

black bcc. M.

Uruttt, To fed, to
recognize. M,
l/iiir. To fall down,
M.

UsHr, To cKcite, to
poke {e. g. fire.) M.
UsH- Lean,

Usar. To irntate,Mo
be angry. M.

Uyu, To throw. To
bring dovrn. (M.
HttHttg, Itihua, )

APPENDIX II.

Census Figures for Birhor Populstion
In 1911 and 1921.

The total Birhor population in 1911 was
3jOS3 {1,489 males and 1,596 females,) Of
these there were 1,024 in
file Hazaribagh District.

tlon la 1811. ^27 in Uie Ranchi District,

104 in the Manbhura District and 27 in the
Palamau District, and 745 in the labour dis¬
tricts and States oubide CJiota Nagpur.

The total BirhOf population in Cliota
Nagpur d\rindled down to 1,510 in 1921.

. Their distribution by dis-

tricts Is shown in the fob
louing tabular state men I

1 MeJm. I

FetiLtdpfl.

Totnl.

HnxiirJbfi^h.

297 i

382

Eiindih

181

103

374

P&Ufriii^].

Miuibhuiu.

3mgbhiini„

183

107

S80

Totiil bi

CbotR Nnypiir,

740

761

1310

* UDfartuoiitfllj the Indiui Ccr»iu (U‘((ort fpl 1931 ™il#
the Eta.tktic8 for Birhor [lofiulntion; Mwl «> HO
fen Birlior [topuUtfcm outtide Cliotn NEKpur U evuliibiLi.

APPENDIX m.

Anthropometrical Measurements of
Some Adult Birbors.

if-l

A|i| t ^^ ^ ^ "

i '^rt?iS35 ’^r-
‘5|ggsl*^rr:Sr:r:gSSr.S

^ f t>r
. ^

J'a-a-s

333^-5 !scs^—fe*— 2 £v;«s—s

5 t Z i. t t t 1 liSFFl

APPENDIX IV.

Size and Sex of Families.

From the Census figures for Birhor popu¬
lation, we have seen that there is a slight
excess in the female population over male
population. The following stafistics of
the size and sex of the families in one BirhOf
settlement might seem to indicate dial the
first-bom child of a Birhor is generally a
female. But for accidental death and loss
of life through wild animals, particularly
tigers, the BirhOf, and in particular, the Jaghl
or settled BirhOr, is fairly loug-Uvcd, The
excess of the feiuale population over the
iruUe population may perhaps be partially
traceable to the greater loss of life amongst
males through wild animals. Thus, in one
family of Uie Bhuij'a gotrA I found that two
out of three brothers had been killed by
tigers. And tlie genealogies of several
families that I gathered showed cases of
similar untimely loss of life Uirough tigers.

595

Appendix IV.

1. Dibru (male ) of the Ludnmba clan,
now aged about 60, was married at the age of

24 to Budhni tlirce years younger, and in
36 years of married life, has had 2 sons
and 6 daughters, of wliom all except one
daughter are living. The hrst-born child
was a daughter.

2. Sukhlal [ male) of the Lupung clan
(now aged about 52} was married at 2S,
and in 24 years of effective married life,
has had 4 sons and 5 daughters of whom
all except one son are U\dng. The first-bom
child was a daughter. His wife Chunia tol
the Aftdi clan) is now about 4d years old.

3. Burkfi {male) of the Afjdi clan,
now aged about 32, was married at Ihe age of

25 to Koili of the Lupung clan (now aged
about 2‘») and in / years of married life
h:is a male child who is now living.

4. Mangal ( male) of tlic Andi cUio, now
aged about 45, married at the age of 25
Pairo of tlie Hembroro clan, now aged
about 43, and in 20 years of effective
married life has had 1 male child and
5 female children. Of these all but one

S96 The Birlton,

rcmalc child are living. The first-born child
was a female.

5. LitlkA ( male ) ui Uie SamdIiOar clan
(now aged about 42 ) married at the age
of about 22 Birsi of the Hembrom clan
(then aged 20) and in 16years ofefiec-
five maniage had 7 male children and 3
female children by lier^ and on her dcaili,
about 4 yKirs agOt apin married Sumri of
the f Aipiing clan and has one male child
by her. The sex of the Hrst-bom by his
former wife was also male.

6. Asnian ( male ) of the Bhuiya clan,
now aged about 26, married at the age of
32 Somri of the Nagpuiia clan { tlien aged
about 20}and has had one male child, who
is living.

7. Eiwa^ male) of the Bhuiya clan, now
aged about 39, maTried at the age of 23
Radha of the Murum clan, about three years
younger than himself, who deserted iiim
within a year of marriage, and the next year
he married Bhinsaria of the Ludamba clan
(now aged about 35 ) by whom he ha-s had 2

Appendix IV. 597

male and 2 female children, all living. Tlic
hrst-bom was a male.

tJ. Chaitu ( male) of Ihe Blitiiya clan
now aged about 23 married, 2 years ago,
Cliaiti of the Muruni clan and has yet Iiad no
child.

9, Pusua ( male ) of the Ludambii clan,
aged about 26, married at tlie age of 18
Budhni then aged 16, ( who is the daughter of
a Munda father by a BirhOf wife ), and in
8 years of married life has had only one
female child who is living.

10. Koro ( male ) of the Ailunim clan, now-
aged about 29, married, at the age of 25,
Gcnda of the Lupung clan three years
younger tlian himself, and in four years of
married life has had only one female
child who is living.

INDEX.

Adlng ( wusr t^beniAelo of

A BkT^Lur kat)

30&.

AdhilioH wmtinny I
A^bia <^«mnaDy 190,
iQoiu ( vow J 574,

A^td Bhoogpjih Bhoo 14i
A^culturDi 40p 56^ ^^3-
Aji-kATuirr T&bo(> of 201,
AmuBciuEntfl iif tke Birlwr^

555,41.

AoAnd Smg 295.

Atidkei bliul 312,

AndJ dim 90,

Andii (omAtiient) 33fl.
Anthn>^Njln&trical oiotiauiv^
m-enlji 59.

An:hA pfifchit ccTeiDtioij 1

Ajtihitwtiin? of thy Birkon

Ai*tH, Fiop, ul tlip BiTlmT%»
502. 7.

—Uvefiil. Rirhor 5 l 2 t IT,
Amm 14.

Asthim or tlumn 295^ 302*
Amur Ic^nd 402* 3,

AUwiLha 74.

Atooidafl 74,

Awnft (rvndcivoii*) 72.

Ikliftov 74,

Bagh-bir 294,

Jkbhinga 521.

BftOwriL oeromoiij 78^ 79*
Bajbur 74,

BBun-^iuit ecr«fiwmy 72, 73,
211-13, 370.

Banjipi& 70^

Bondii Ijeiii, 3:39*

Band«r BLr 389,

BaiidAr lok, 4,

Bfifihoi 1D5
RoojiurL bbut 327+

BmlEl 530.

Ikun^-bliiit 324,

Biuilll 521.

BAU-bonjAr* taboo 300-
fk'bem 74^ 80,

IkD^-lutrbi Baplot fanu of
ISO,

Flem 520,

Biiogvu GX
Biial Tm^^^ 223,

Bbclowa 73^

Bhiislhir Fimobo Panniri
jj^nUob spirit of mouAODUp
niim I09p 36B.
Bhotti^-EAxioj 74,

Bbtitjw dim 00, 302,

599

tihuUya cff tJtbliia 2B*
Bhurkfl Star ilSS*

Bktil 21, 279, 290, 30B.

( HoQgH, Of apiiitfl }

Bintli onv ffpirit 334| 391-

Biotiirikii-Kadamb ttowor

475, 47fi, 477.

Bir-Bonht'y bbut, 294.
Ilirkiinf 2, 15,

—luain divaaknia of thot 4-4.
BirUi—

—<.^ramoi]ica at 22 Lr 22 &h

^tubuoH ctt 227.

Bini’kbut 23.

Bm OTi. U.

Biiu^dikiir 84 h

t^>iigji, goaeml for

ddtirs add Kpirita 297.
lloitga-f^^igoni 258.
iVifiga-Kbaot;^'!

Bodt^-om 303.

Butiga-j^ti 295-
Boro 75.

Bulii 70.

Buudo 39.

Borlui-BiirVii auccator Hpiriti

S5T.

Burhi-Lngti 223,

Burhl mai 37.

BiLTu-bouga or Dm boiiga,

SHG, 300.

CandBialiiiil % 4.

Cai[tlinM poidtiH iiacies for
thv 499.

CcmniQ JlaportH on tba Bit-
boiti 34, 3G.

CbiiBdi-botiga 50, 39i^,

Ohaudi (mcteoiv) 3Sd.
GbaELdwa K.

Chonuiba] 70.

Chdtkdiii 75*

Chatm 15.

Gbiitninui-bhitt 302.
CliatU’hdrboiii 36 L
Cluiuli-jvi.g 295.

Glmr^o 75,

Clihiir, gaifio of 535.
Ctibliim 73
Clnhor 466
ciiLlcIbccx]

^ciiiatGuUn 34 L
China 73.

Chok^y 496.

Chopf onkbleiil si Birboi' raj
439.

Ghota Nagpiir. Toot uoto S,
Ch&ta tliathi i?uffliiioii]r 332.
ChoLitha-ChoutUi dEreinony
203.

Chdupunmi 153.
CiiU-KmnbiA 48.

Chninau pai^a 150.
Chiiiruiii,-ceilsidoiiy 193-

the logon ibreaid lG&-70^
— ot wellfl 474.

—after buut 82*

Churil 21ft, 824.

Chiitaill 5^ 621.
CL^ivtruatioti and tatooing
242-43.

Clan orgainaation, objert of
540-49.

600

Chu i^IriU 300-^.

CUmn or gdtrud ef EiTUund

139, 91,

—riDlatioj34 di0B-

Tont llD^m,

—tlifTefBTlOL" in QdlMlfOliUI

between aiffereiit 110-
llij.

— OiflinneiLt m one TatirJn
115,

Olfl^Hcatory hynietiu of
rDLaUnniliJ|i 12^

— Oiatinifiiiiliod

llawiiiijiTi Rv^^ni 550.

CtinuiLo 42.
l.^olD 3

Conaiujgiiiiijtj m A hari i.piv .

tiuo to ut&rfiagG |

CTOtimi,—jptory 30tl,

— rjf anmi* 405^ 1

—or lie huflklo 103.

“otf Diojijiiitu ol^^. 103.

—at. NerpouU 40S*

CreEu«iii.iQU 271,

1}^

[Hii inning 331*

195#

DniJy Ufa flf tiu' Mbyni
53, 5d

tKili^T Sing, at^ qf

tori, . jiuintkiia of

tho IJfrlioi^ ill ilia Ouacnu
tiro 15,

Damixlnr 40,

of like Zlirhm. 20, I

503. I

DiftiMU^jDr I

JXirUnpiHt 31, 25, 310, 300.;'
X>o:^-»Uig uuEia/tovi'txl 365. I

I —niod^ nf 4upoiita erf tba

! 35®^ 73.

! — fcKKj ofonng to tbc 374 .

D^tli.^oirigiQ of 353~M.
“O^tnpijnk^, 354^

*t, 261-03*

—wuJlbg »t 261
— -pollution Hi 26364,

—Uiboos 365.

—purlfi^jwtioti after 372*

— diflijovening iJie nCTnt of

373, OTa
Di.^y {iteitlER) 396.

Di pra?, CupL [utsiiUon of tke
Kirliorti in hia iiepartocL
tlu^ TopographiciiJ ^urfftj
of €hottt Xeiptir, ISBS
Devi 3Jp 26, 319* 330.
DlkEuiinn Jioakv 430
Dhiuignr 3, 6, 167, 471#
Dliiilcni 146.
llipuir I’niHitli 150,

Dimni 450, 45L
tiHnflu bflti 339.

B\pi\ 480,

Dii$eAaG4 and inoclicijiteti 50L
Diatriet U-tijfiettDeTiji mentioit
of the Birhom in 3S-37#
Dwum SeiKlm 76.

—ill*taigiii§hfld frtHD djiilj
lituit 55^6#

Douhm 3,

UoQioiilEu tooU^ utenti0» uiid
wo»p(Hia of iho Birlioro
530-22,

Tkmg^iTifii^

Dnriiiitofj—
iu the

—boijdipg 243.

/wiitu.

l-'l4ln&tj tlltioit Mtid 11 ^b.|j .h.|j^
iiwTki af a 44 - 4 tl.

PniKringft 512.

Dimma

tojJot eta df Lbu
BirhoTn 52*^27*

PHtTjr^ W, H, I\ hiW uvLmmt
of tiio BjrtuDT^ Iq J. A S. B.
(18^8; 23.24.

PrmDy; awaj uphiUt 541),
Dub borji prot^s af
311^ 3i5,

DEUflbiir olili4tii 331^,

Dundii end^ jjnunj <if 536.

Ear-borma ceramoiif 23740.
Ertrly Kecoiinbi <Kr the
BirLora 1-38.

EalipsL^, tlie origin uf ym
noW HJid luuiir 4D5, ^

Eijgft 516.

EngA 153. I

Envinir4mratT iwiluoTico uf
543 .

Breaadi, gA.Tlmiid of 157^ 1G6.

P+

Fttmilj Bpirita 305^302.
^miLuitiL bbiitd 30943,
Fnjtwftll eereioour of
bridegiwiii 196-67,

FftUQiL and Horn 41,

FfMLT of IJIl ^thA UM,
EbjwLb rtniJi fcfttivalB uf Ikv

Birbora 350 59, I

Eins—piiridiAtfkni bj^

—mttktng 55^ 51S,

—"CCToruonlril obi&eiTiiiiLieiS

coottected fritb, 5IT,

First fniibi, ofloriaif uf_

Polk-fAlM of thEi Bb boft
39JJ-i63.

Fax! i>f tho Birboni
'—DoruiiiiJiiiril mstrictigaw
ivitb unpaid 530.
Fi>rlnw' SkiLtlciiititit Koiwrt
( 1872 ), Ajcoflunt of the
HtrhDct lu 74 ir

Fnomkfiip 537-31.

—GBUgi^jal 53L
—Jitia doif 520,

—Kainuii diiir 5281
—Phrsol 527,

—Piaiitbd 531,

—Sambi oj- Jklitiii 53a
—SuhuirD 530*

FuMctiioiu^ of ctutaiii Kin
138^39

Fungmi coremoMkni 268^ ?li

Giiiuoa 533-35*

—Cbbur 535*

—JbiBilu raao 53 j
—KaaLiq^ kmiLam gql^ 537,
—KhatT 535
—Ora bal bw cue 537.

—THguti 535.

— rrkii 0119 536,
GiMida-giinir OJ, 405
Oatidd 337,

Giinga^iU 30, 531
naii-Sendm immkej huiii.
67-76, Sm Uiaitiii
(jiiti bojea 297*
flelii lutuiti 263i

602

tnti&v.

tJtsua 609.

(Wda clun

Codbi tku 91.

Giii bfuiari p^djr 3T4.

Gidj tini 343^

Goar dim 91-

God of tbfl foFMt 2i^f

Golrtl9.

CkaHiat Ikpb 149.

Goni Xassm bhiit 5l l. >

Gordliowi^i 103i
Gorkbia bbut 83.

Goth 282- '

Gotm 09 k So& Gkii
Gnuidpcufkiit^ HcdiLGco
hetwHsn GiatidH:him aud,
135-36.

^cumpoml with tha

of tb.D Djoni of
Aiutralia 12&

Gilh^a dwT f L

Giiudjrt datt 91-

Habitat ol tho Birhora
394L

Hail itorma^ and boor
fivMta — the ongiu of tlio
197.

Halman Bir 299.

HaqacIh daneo 503.

415, 417,418, 234,

2526,

H&oumou bir 264 ^ 389*
llap^rom 293, 305^300.
Haprom—

—two dlTiakiQt of the 307.
Sec liWaily i^uitsL I
Haluig ( brua ) 74,
Uawibagb G, 3i 4U.

Hombiuiu cloa 91
— -Gbanlit 90.

—Here, 91.

—Kb wapj 91.

— Kbudi,

"MiLgh&lB, 91*

Here jHa 75.

Hirtiin t«pla 148.

Honod 53 k

HouJs^d of the Birbum 48-4&.
Hou^diold utemUH^

See DottiiMtui utfipsilii to,
Hoyop 263, 364’G6 k
—mtemony ST&'lG*
HffPdrti fftllfl 490.

HaQtiDg i6t

See Guri Seikira
Hpnter’a aewent of tlie
Birbots 23

Hum ahiiu]i iijylb 536-46,

loipltipicota 520-22.

Boe DomcBtie utendli
Impuiity-^Dayi of cere
HHtniab 22^28.

— After lueu^truitioD 248^
Indoof clan 91*
rohoKtancei rules of 141-43.
Inter-taDda of^oeiaUoa
—Lb OuntiDg T6-16-
—oti other occmimui 87-88.
IpB 486.

Irfnl 447, 448.

J. Bk O. B. e, 38,

/ mUw tyO$

JaUu ^30,

JttrlEtr iJiUioe fiOS.

Jagi^^ar 39.

Jpl^M Bijrliojii 45 . 47 ^

J^n bBiuku SOi^^

Jpunru Bing SHp
J nrtgA-dhaFA 3I0| 313*
■raqhpur 3,

Jnwa-diJI Irlfind^hip 539,
Jiiyar—(saa red grave J TO,
7Tp 33 .—JSJd, 50.
Ji^gSEiEia Latha clin SI.
Juth Saria Lattn elan 336,
Joth ^iJL$ in boo ISfi.

Jljiil 71.
irhumar 503.

JbomrH ISO, 184.
iTitin^pipar 303.

—fofltival 351-50,

—diJr, fricndeibip CSS.
JoiJi-TTiantli—
oaremoiiy 158 -OE.
jom nnwa or Navi'a-Jcwn
foalival 353^571 383«
JcKkmoo IT,

JunogH IG.

Kidmnr bill IT^

Kali ttiiLip dfdty 39ti.
—offerings to^ ^04.

—09 4 SaagT god 3l 7,.

—origin of tbo spread of
tbo cuh of 424.
Kan&nfii 238.

KADdh-katU cerottjonj
279^80.

Katidi o3L

KauUm-Kantom Kob 537-
Kjipi ' 27 .

Karain dalr,i filonibibjir

20, m.

Ktiratn true 383.

Kanoft festi^Al 350,

Kntkio garb 48S.

Knod] don 01.

Kav4ii dtui 61, i2S5.

Ktjtidra 447, 448. m7.
Keondoqr dan OL
Keond 421.

Eiohin. n Niogebba Uiot
323.

Kbairagurb IT-
Khandi G5.

Kbangardatl Si.

Kbjutia Dlan 61 -
Kharibom pixK:cii& of spirit
finding 314-13.

Kliana 31
Khara 108.

Kbarwmnv IT,

KhAti 335.

KbBEDta dauaj 303.

Kbooloo plant 10,

KbudI niarkhi! 101.

Kidu rpli 490.

Kinships ^fwtem. u£ 124-128^
—DomeDdatarOt and claasl-
Scatoiy syitem of 137.
^taboni, 13T.

—salutadona 130.

KlHng jawai» bapla 040*

KiUiST.

Kol, Kolariana In'!.

Kompani Malmrani 423,

KotVfar or XHguar 65.

, ivndra Wiut 313.

Index.

Ktidri bcFDg* ^7.

Kolhi mMrhi 374,
Kumbft 35a, 48$,
KuinbtiAkftrDa 423-34,
KumUdffl 489,

Ktarani 475, 514.

Kmora Uga fp4] 4tfl^
Kunutiud, 907»

cerom^jny 307-B.

KtiErain 233,

Kntaru procrsfll 20 §.

of BiLcriOfio / 338,

LsbuuT,^

— ^precftuticm BgalMt
difficnl^

—tnagic titm to pr&vfitit
dlHiciilt 319-30,

—isppD^ed caawfl of
difficult 320.)

Liigra 003,

—SiriD^ 503r

L«dii Kmaq bhnt 310.

Latnii jura 488,

Lamhi ban 388^
lAni SaVrom T5 h
L andi bon 5$5.
lAnguago-^of thft Blrbora
59-fll. 550-00.

—affinity to Mundari and
fiantidi bOSl-
I^rba 174.

Lcg^ndn I7i
—OflgiD of tb^ Birhi»is

nia

See Folk-talea.

Litidain 353.

Logon tnl o£fmicK>dy 187'80.
Logon ibread, lO&iiiDg of
169-70.

.^-puc^rtainittg tbo omena
from ITI,

—cbninH-Ei of tibe 173-74.
Looting the sara. dbo^,
MrHDony 185-86,
Ludamba trlnii 01, 393,

304. 316.

—npHiia] god of 293.

Liigu*

—u minitil eUn tmlni
304.

“Borhi 293
^Mai, 21, 37.

—mytb of 291.

—Phbar 21, ^1. 2N,
Lukandi Ibridenniud) 31,
193, 197.

-Hbystamti) I79p 188* m
103, 202.

—marble throwing by 20!l
Lopong claa OL

blagio 364 et flee Bfati
—rctatlon of Hirbor
Raltg^on with, 395-08.
^training in 3^.

—to atop rain and
IJgbtGuing 3$7 p
—to itop a^rntJi 368,

—mako rain 369.

—to control animals 379-71
--bo oootrol or offbet
bannui bmziga 372,

Ititicw

60S

—to eontral plant Kf^
373-76,

UAgIc powers—of ocrtAifi
oliMia 10S-&

—distlDgnish^d from the
jVrDnEJLi li^O.

—Rt ttiimitft clan god

304, 3i6,

—04 ticid 317^

^iin ttiteux? Of Stkbl

>ibat3Jl/3l9,

—M the god

—as ereatfir frf inwi cht^
vulttsi^ ifT. 403, 404
—tinci Porvfttip Lnlcni^eiiing
in hamae a^airs 401-63^
4 G 3-07.

Mftha ctiRja or m*L 21, 2fl, 33
—A nwitA clan spirit: 344
—m tutpUry goddosfl 3l4i
Mohdi hbiit 3i.2,

MaliDQ n.

Afdech spirit 217.

J^fatibhiim 40.

^iikiiitiL bhut—

—of wamrbn 43M2.

—BagbontR SOB.

Maral bbut 310.

Momtig Bum 21* 313.
Marich NsAan 311.

Moi^ m, 300, 210,

—Pjjja 310.

Marriagfl—

—oififcting fttaton of a
Birhor 143.

—adult 143.

kind s «jf
utftmBgs 144-50.

deseiibod hjf Forbos
IQU.

-nJifferent i^togiM of the
ccr&mDuy ef IS 1-313,

—iijegDtialiJdQ!i 15L
^prcJiminiiriea of a 153-
164.

— -imng the date for 167-
Matis 415.

—FudcHod of 301-63, SSS.

MattAO 3GC.

Meostrnation eoAloma
341-El.

^feastniA] Lluod, dangers
from 33 h
Modielaa 93,

Mcm5 370.

Monkey, ’ahy Birhnni cat
Offih of 423-27.

Morilityr premarital 347*

— in doraiitoHee 240 40.
Miifioaga 4B9.

Mua epiiit 3]7| SQQ, 334.
Monlm qIod 302, S35.
Mnssal gotra 336.

Bfitlkar danee 503.

QfA 391.

Kftgpriria oU«i
Nuit n^ipam bapla 144.
Naun hhntSlO, 321.

Naya 63-64.

Knyn mnJidi 156.

Nawajfini caremoiiy 353-256,
Ncg da^tuf 152,

K^ochhanft ccretrtony 259, '
Niisgclilm hhut 324-35.

— Fuji of 34fi-41 r
—coromof^y 279^ ^4T.
_ntct5od3ilp
Nir oipir Mri^ony ^

Namonil^^ nnd taantiog 49^^*

OjhA 28,

Oil> ei!5cacy rrf 33B,

Omonji 71 ’TSj 3^4 -SG.

OtDcn reodiiTK Ivfnro ittnr-
mco lTl-74.

Om bunga 193. J&G, 2m,
590

— Fiijft of 33M8.

O™ hi bai «n* 557,

Ora KamboE 48,

Orani; utfUkg 5.

Or»ati-^ 9.

UnDAtijhl 39-

OfQKIEHlIlia^—

—dresB, tftilwt and 62537.

P-

Piuldlogton, iTT{>lllo of 5.
Fahnn 403,. 4Q1, 493,

Fuiia PaliAr 459.

Palminiii 3. 6, Tt 40.
Fkuikliraj 400, 457+ 400,
P^mha 2.

Ffi.Tkom+ tbo foysienotw
4&4-a5.

Partition, nilw of 141.
Pmetati 403, 401. 403

PliaoBhi 523,

Fliarea551.

:^c1ibfL Betfr corcmony 30fl.

Pinjar 471, 473.

Pluro^

—why tbo plant i* no

hardy 4l5t
Ponrka 377+

PribgDFl0457’—

^—cabiervflocefl durinJi
315-10.

—tib<M» dining 210’17.
Fra$aii friendihip 531-32.
Pnni bind 47+

Fumagarii 4 53. tS I -

Rtir*i. Ethnic of the

Birhov 59,

—affitiitiw of the Birhor 00

RMinbow. aiigin of the 408-
Riiicsihaai. fttoiy cf tha
4574^9.

Ratonyano, Blrhor^t TcriiflO
of the 405^24.

I Rttni nhaiidra 10,

Ilotngiirh 36. 491. ,

! Ean^i 0-

' Ranga hom 291, 393.

Ro* Kodra 5€L
Raviina 405, 413,

—the Hfe peoret of 523+
Rebirth, ideo aft ansoiig tbo
Blrhcra 230.

I lUligirius beliefo of ^bo

I Birbors, natute «f

/ HdeA\

fiO?

ReiQrrection of n. Dend
PrinM 463-6T.

Riddlui &3D4J.

TUghttt aod priviteges ol k
Birhor (ilhcr nnd tnothar
110.

Ruley'fl CftfiU* oiid Tribes,
tuentioD oi tho Birbora
inm

Rope'Hi&kitig ocoDpstiDii of
Elrliorpv its ari^ 97-

ESabalgr^Hf origin of

£Ucrifice,

—Birhor'* oonception of
331^2,

—flffoct €f QMtlag the bond
□f a 331, m.

-—dLlfereiit, for clLff^ronfc
ciuifi 110-111.

—procfiflBes of 338-33.

—ritual of 333, 346,
Sacri6oor 333,

Sfldar HapU 150.

SiibiiTO frimdiiliip 530.
Hakii cerrinonj 235-35.
-.^haudi 235-

—ml 2351,

Sala520. ^

SoIntAtiorui, f&miB of lot),
i^iunnt 531-
fisngi Bonga 60.

Bensi l^but 962, 313, 5l6p

318, 322,^
Bangha 14" ^
-Baplft 148.

8uiffl 51

Son tali 8,

Sea&oiiB 496t
Sgi, predicting 221,

BitiL 406.

of mkQ)n 408.
Songn w3.

Star^ 496.

TaboM—

—of women STG-rB-*

—of youth and cliildron
37^79.

^^eneral tabooa
3604^4.

- -anlncky daya 3S2.

_^plucfi talMM* Ao. 195.

-natna tabooft 13T,

__kinjdUp taboos 507»

tote in tabooa^

Tauiis Tl, 77t 521.

Taiyo clan 336i
Tudu clan 336.
Tnk-chiiPriil ccrecMuy

152-5T*

reunartnd Idovo# i lO.
rnna Bbagate 300.
panda, describod 4T* 43* 62,
390. 29S* 302,

303.

^OfliciaU 63,
_n5 iifi-

TattooitiB 342-
Thupfilicra 78.

Thapiia procfifflioo
Thathi cpremnny ,-28-3*>,

Index,

Thong* Dbftroaai 167.

Thor 438.

Tfaothi 531.

Thnnder tmd thunder bolt,
origin <rf dflS.

TiktUil 377.

Tilguti 535.

-nril 72, 78.

Tool*, dameitic 620.

Totem 69.

Totem nunes, 90-98.
Totem bnbooM 60-100.
TotemUoit-niligion.s n»pNt
of 103-6.T20 3.

To^ 0S5.

Tribal orgaoiaation B6,
651-52.

Teltui lutur ceromDoy 237-
TneJluiK 632,

Xt.

Udra ndri Berpln 145i

Uio 62.

Ukhum 531.

IJku-fino 536.

Ulinkhl ceromoBy 17S-7 3-
Umbol adar ooremcaiy 375.
rmbul 353.

UpHriA wiritn 259.

Uthlii «,-47,

Voddoe 3.

WaUing, cenmonud, niter
death 263, 261.
Weapona 520^32.

Ttix Eim.

OTHER WORKS
BY THE SAME AUTHOR,

m>mtM at the IN LVD/.i" o^ce.

Church Roiiii, Ranchi.

1. The Miindaa aad Their Country.

Wilii fitmmnJiiii illiiMtratimiav noal mi JtstrodtwlkH} bj
Sir EDWARD OAIT, m.c.fL u ^ l ^ * ^ s-i

Fricv—8ii RfipMUh

SOME OPINIONS*

Sir J, G. TllAZER n, & Lw, i- l. lu, Litt, p.^ i\ n. a.,

Rr SL, Prof0fl£tor of SoeinJ APtlirapDlogy fii tluj Uoiver-
«ty i)f Idvcrpool writ^R:—

K is R wi 3 Tk of grout itit^reati oai hi^ value iw a full
and acomttte ilwcriptLoti of Rti Tudiaii 1

Lijpgriitiikle you or having produced it Yon must
Ijavp gfvUR luuob titnn and labeliT to tUo roMsRTehfl*
wbipli yott liaVR ombodlad lit tbw liook.. But Ibo time
and labont have been well njJonL Tlie dascriptiEjti iwema
extremely clear and well written in the alwple language
wikicli k apiiroiadatR to the tlnjfue, and the traPhlatloiia

of the pwtry ore plioniiLtig.

Dr. a, a HADDOSi w. a*, r. R- i-* UniTOTity

lleailer ip Etbmilogyf Gambtklgi^ wttloH i—

* * * StudeuM bavic Icrag wwited Ml Hilhoifttalivi

ii^cDiiiit uf thin Intcrcsling “sd duw ym bwt

^iipplicKl ll,

TflOt. Sm W. HtU<JEWAY, m* a,, Sc. r. ^ a , Lltt.
D*, u I- of C4iii]ibrlii|;'^ vriti^ i—

* * * A work of toul iEcporiunoEt. ti in a

to n HciflotiBr koowl^dijo of tli^? racea of Indi* to
liHfO 11 wutk liko youra with tbo mbjecU

Sia KDWAKD tfATi; a hu c. i. Pn. tiL» i. e.

fonucTly 6*<w9rii 6kp«4!i^oWofi4r/ii‘ /tiffwip writiw

• * * It ia a oiOfli iriiJuiable eoiitrilMitioiii to 1 l td tan

KthBiigrW|iby,

THE SrKCTATiiH (Unidon) ^-JVsltlmJpcJklgiits wiU
wolc?yi3:i£> tUitf carefii] iK^iiiit of the Mondni V Tliio
riml imrt uf ihi! hook U oocnplcd wHb a biitory
the tribe anJ an attompt at i 4 (jlTiiig vUo ^JliiuruR
jk7obh>ii]H Uiat dumviiiirl lUf orkginH, But po8iffil»l| iL^
luml Boctiqn h iJl* Ktlioograjildual ou^t iitt

which thfl tri^ml tiONtonwi arc dc«iri1‘iocl In dotaiL
Tliy ili^^VIEW OF llETIEWS ( Loodon, Seplombof,
IVfl^ ), uftfler thy hAulitiv ^NfitAblc ErK^ka of the Month,
writ^h:—

>tr, Ulwindni Hoy intoniwiij hilujfOHttid in the taak hn
mii binwi ir. ^ ^ Tiso Uiitorf, cuMtimUi and lognn'

ilary, mul otiiivoBTaiihv of lid* mtort^tiLig pO(»|d« arv
lfi¥fin Ltk grvaf duUit hj Mr. Hov. ’* * *

TIh? j^TATESM AN { CalcntU, Aug. 7, 1!)13 ) wdtir^ -—
An Licfsialiiigly vduniu frpin tlw jien of Mb,

SaiLkT OaA^i:iiiiA Rov nf lUtiold. * * *

TIi€ EXCLLSHMAS ( Calcutta, July 2X

(3}

Tiie book brifon? uh ii, ire tbo Uni attnifcjiL to

put to^ilicl* a coQuoci^ LiJxtory of thS.f int^mitini;^ people.
Mn* E Af CiAITj l c- it, t^irj i‘^i(noiiMiiioiiprj^ Ikliti'

wlf aii Ackiiourb'ilgod antliorf^ m liiiibiu Eim

written A Immotl mtiMxlucLjfn^ lotlw? book, of whieU Ur^
pxprefisoif IV vuly bigb ofiiijiou. * *

Tlie l^JJlAS ^VlTNESS (CtLlcmtln, Jitinuiryj

WTitcM ]t iM ft goiiuiiio pkftiiiirL- to weltmne th^roo-li
11 ilii^ ^[fiiidrui Eu k rriitnd m fl!^aip Ma.

trAitp in tiif- illiujiSnniirkg fntrcNingtfon tJie liodk vntc»«
cifwx^miiJig ibo flkiDjiler on Et hnograpliy :^*'nnM crLiiptt:r
cOTiinim Q foil Acraiint of lli<i dtiily lifo uf llic
tiiPir tiro.-^ agrictilture, tiilAl oj^ftinitatiois Mjn-UI md
reli^'ioioi fftlklcpre ajk! aon^ It bfu ovklently

been in tho light of ati|i>!4e £>er«oimL

fif the pcopio and deep and iiiw] njpiEptktlhptie loai^bl into
tlii^ir Fivjlmgs, iiieuUilRy mid of IJfiv" * * TJiis
book will fill ft n]iudi^iiL%Di.ied blpwik on tliii ftbdvea of iIiOn*
who ftjo in a rstndj of |H‘rjpltv

The IliJfDrSTHAN REVIEW (Alkhafi-ul, July.
1912 ) writcj* :—

TLv work tinder tkoUix^ k till. jsi»stru£tiri ^pkiiuh of Uie
(leiipli!, bRturicftk rieftcriptiriif eilifiD%rictt1p '^dolo^etil.

It u A kjiinn of viilimble iiiroroiAtiftn all nmtteR
roIntiEig to the ^fiuxiiOf, ft a TabiftbU* iH’HiLribiUioii
to mail aeiftiico^i JO* E0itH'4finpii r jiml Sficiolo^y. Tlu*
'ftylfl k votT jAeMint. Altogetlior, Mr, Itur'- Uxik i-
of ftbwrliloi^r Ulleri-it.

Tlie MODERN REVIEAiV (C4ilmttftt 1^12)

willed:—

TIiSji ncmt]y printed And wvU^miiiikI book is a itorft^
boupio of inlomiiiUoti renrardin}; tbo MimiliUf sod iho
Couiitiy thojf Udiabit. Tbr antbor hw looked up cet^-
fnJIy JiM ft\'siftb|p reonrdjfi and hiw cxocuted hlii m1(-
imptMod tMk widi Bcholnrlj^ abilJt}*. It Is o pity that
Hucb % ospAbln Ilian ns tlie; aullior m etmid not detot#
bis s'lioJi tifao to l\i& work of ethnologicid toseAfcih fn
lodiiv for wbkli therr is a pressing twtl in tbii counlryi
Mr^ Gbit, vko is iiov ui^onbLedij s j^imt authority oo
the ■ubioot fif lodioii Etiinolii^', has vrit^^Q P4^ LnlrodulT-
tion Tor thrS book wliiob h by itsolf an mE^arcsting and
liisiructiTfl aiuilr^

Tbr INDIAN WORLD {0Al<mttJi. Soptombw SS.
^\VI) writs:—

Tliu author lias colkicrtorb (JcJlatod and icyptuimndiwd
ths Tost lastarmis at bis ilisposnl wdth a and doto-
tkiu tbat mnfft Ijo tlip bniyUitn of sll ntiidoiitn of bistory:
HIa Iniii^hL into tlt& tnin Ufe and spirit of the peopj* is
not bofxi of dQrMiLoto Lntomiit but of iw^uAiabinov^
with ihpir inannen luni tiiistaiiiii, Tbi) oluipter oo tbs
Etlmocmplij of thK> MumlbiH in worth fitu vptylit in
*„Ju a U'onJ,^ thff book h an iiivalti&blo oemtribntkm to
Ihr Ethhrdiigiml literature of Indiik

Also b%ldy ipfpkirn of by auch j30p*u?t a* the ATtlE-
0:DM (kn^. 10. 191tho ANTHKOFOS ( Joiiy.
Fwby.. nu% and tlie CATITOIJC ilOALD(luna,
1«U ).

fs)

2 . The Oraona of Chota Nagpur.

ttntli numenniB iUmittttiiiii*, mid mn Introdui'tiofl liy
Dh, a. C. HADDON, h. a.. Sc; a., r. b. q<

Price—Eight Rupee*.

SOME OPlXiONS.

Sir Jkihw Frawr, r; e. t.., j. i. a., Ult. n, r. bl a.,

F. ft. B. t—

The book hi ful] of rerj *nr| mta»Riiiig

iuforuuitioti. r ecwllallv Dangnttulftie you oti youT me-
CM» lu colWtti^* NuniDch iiattnipotDgit.H|| iuAimkntion
tWKwmbig the tribe, juid qq tho mdmlnilite lucidity nod
tanutfiess wItJi Tshleli you set forth iiMt futa nu«fql|y
dwtinguiKhing tboiu ftuui Inforoucw which ynii havV
'Iniwft froiij them. TJio infemim weiu to we for ihu
tnOKt pun jurt ftod profaftLlfi.

lotir work ou the OnDDa pramiae* to nwh wtih the
*nj beat uiDoograpIt* on Indian tribm.

the SPBCTATOR (Lofidou, Jany. 2B. ISlAn—Iq
RengnI, at lamt u genuhw InUmt In the ainliropo|c|^
eflhc provinoe hu tod to th* wririog of booka of rwU
n«»it jiud liiiportnnn, \ry BouguliN. s^ch wm Mn Wa
own Bccotint of Tht Mntuliu ttiirf TTUir Ctmxtry. Mr.
Roy now ginw n careful dBacriptluq of iuii>tbor of the
oborigitwl trfi»o of the CKoU Nagpur pfeloau, with
nutiiniDii. aiwrtmtfoos and a map. l»r. Hadrton'i inii»v
dtiotlon witiimAriMwi with hi* wotitctl nktll Mi|d loanjUtg,

«l« ni«t Intonwtiog and riagnifleant of the writor**

0 wrmtu^tiH 4ad djwx>if«tlj^

(6)

THB TJMKS ( Lcrndou, JRniiAry (3* iW )j—...Eiinit
Ctiiiidri 1)U givBU <u iiuifiti ii)

thia booki wwJ we lu>t« tliat h‘» fitto oiAjiii.ip!e witi l»p
(fllioweU lij aonw of liU Ivllow-«HintiTnnjtt.

3. Principles and Methods of Phy¬
sical Anthropology, ( Pattia Univtwity
Rejulei-ship Lectarcs ).

Prir*^ —Fivi' RupeEm

SOME OPIE'IOJfS.

Sif James Ffsa£eri c*, u u tv# lltt. Dip f
Fp k. P^o^ef««pr ol Scw^ial in ih^ I W'

FFniilJ rtf livcrpool writia

», .p,J idminr tbo mugo fif jaiir knrtwMgn wwi intf-Ren?*

tniU biUJfPfitR, tbe HwlirMstj fuid *oai>fliiP)« rtf jroiir
JuJankcnii iUid Uip Inctdity ftinl NSfcit^iiitiHifiSS nf y^ni"
Q.ipQA|t|on. The book fieeiiiA Ui (in" Lo dfisorvitr wwlts
rLrcnIntkftt iH»t wUj In Iritllit hiit m U-ti'revtJF iiko Ktit^Unh
Luignu^ ib* K|H»kfrrtp^ For m fftT nn 1 nm nwnnt^ * * tlu>r&
ii nn bcK^k on Lbo name; tiroad pltilofloiphit^nl lines in

Ehj^IiaIl Itilliirto liy pair nnniogrupliM oo tl» Mundn-i

smd Draona mil ynur ntttar Jrtii bavfl ppnvcd

7 oiiiiielr n firft Cite fiakl anthTOpob^dit, In f^iir MW
bo^ jon littVE 4btiwil pKPWBiii of higher tiiiality and wiilnr
7004^^. Intliit Id tfl he waniilj oongrutiilfttad fiii
sEitg In joo nil ft.iil.hrQporl<igtdt of ft very high onlnFi
wJ 1 am Uftpjyy to know ihal tlm aothoriti^ Imvo hwl
tW dl^rfrnnieilt t* nppoint jF&n tn ihe first tfiacihiwg p^st

ol in the riiivnmitjH of TiHiia. 1 uouJd

enty India TOur poiiSGriNam, for good anUwpologinU «t®
tt» mre MUfwhcrv; hut I am «tUn«d tliat for tlif
jwlvanwjtiiont of mir aiduiwo ymi stro fw bettor aitnated
hi ludia iliBii j?ou would lie io Europe, MMing tb*t {udia
iucluclcH audi on imniciiao diTondty of met* uml of cul
titn.% from bw Mvageiy up to liijih d-rilinatiuitl. • * *

Sir Arthur Keith, u. n^, i-. a. & a,, u u os r, «. 4

CfMini^rvator of Uie Mii«niia uud Hnaicrhni Froftiawr,

ll'iint Ooltogf uf Siirgoniw af Engliuid, in A'trfwru

( biiidoii; April 1B23 ).

Tlie Lijcliirw frinn mu. of th" best intrcducUuna into
thy itildy of jUitliroiHiliiyjy In tlio J^ngltah IJUgnagc.

Dr. R. R. Marett, M. Atf iii SiIm Itii^idar Irr AnthiT>>
|M>]agy iii tlie L:iib^niitj df Orfonip in Tht londim
J/(?wn-^p { Jrnin, ID21 )—• * A iiicnit WhihhI mid lucSd

opiloBif> uf tlio idbihwLi vtm] of Hq rttttlj of mi^n,

ftiid proti^nl^ L'oaMi^l«'JV<l an liii

Mil. * • *

Dr. A- Cr ti^ddoni if- a-, Siv k, t. el in

{ Lcmdofii BepL 1921 )i-^ * * • Thf? iiithar w ynlUi

up ill Ilia rofldiup.bmik giraa *tii rtCfin^

nitu i^tf>ni44ed turve^^ of oujr jprwnt ktwirkdyt-iif Hiq
B iilijcwl, Iniikii Ntiiikatj urts to Inc ct)ii|PiitiiUl:ed

T ~ iitiviiig an m leomcclt bTOftrl’TjiiBd^d ami

aam?.

Dr William Crooke, (L ti. ScLp c. L Oifo ml

J tuLve read joiir book iriik cum and EnJ It

m T4U7 Iwwi Aibd loLtimliug otpiitdbiiLiQu tu gur
kjiowM^ of i4«j jnibj^oU--. ■)■ m* k At ■>

Df. RoJaod'B. Dixoiii Ph. IX, rrofoMor of
Ani.ltrop'jl*'^ is i^d Harviird Uiiivsnitff CuiibridgCp
Mjii/f,, writm :—

..... Jt Anglin to tm tiittt you lickVL^ jj^dmimblj Lbu

ground nr a pnspaiTitDTy nlMolilOUl for luiginiMuii nud
Jliavfl pmftinlorl tho bftojor fuctk m buitEi fonii UiilL llit j
Mjiciuld bo rertniik to utoiuw tbL-- of Jitudeoifl, jitnl

kid liiuni m ii wb toliikc tbo Btudjr of nuiu. Wo horu
in Afflcncn Itibur lumlcif ibii kiuiio dllHdidtiotf in iwi Imping
Aoy book wbiub cui bo tiMxi a toil book^

iuid l«TC iiitn;ij ktt tUt: necjd itoini tbiiig of itiu mtn you
hare ao woU prroi^ed for AtTidEotB in

MAN IN INDIA,

A Quarterly Record of Anthropolo-
Ukol Science with Special Reference to
India.

Editf'd Hy Bai finfuidiir Saii4t CHwiidfii iky, M- x-, a.

JtiivMcd for IJ

fjitnitfn), ^{ntik Cuny (QuaritFly iMm}^Two J^w/wri
KtyLt Anm* (Jndm). Fit¥. Shiliinyi ffal

ymriyz — Ji§, 3 f/mfui), 7 * 9 - (kt (/or^iyn).

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